Introduction

In Eurocentric circles, it is argued that before the coming of colonialists, Africans were quite disorganized and lived in total anarchy, observed no law or order and lived like baboons. However, according to the findings of archaeologists, Africans were well organized under the political systems which strictly observed law and order in their respective societies. Hence, at this juncture there is need to guard against gross eurocentric exaggeration.

African pre-colonial societies had two distinct political structures namely, centralized and decentralized. A thorough study of the two structures portrays the uniqueness of conducting politics long before the colonial masters appeared on the African scene.

A centralized society may be identified as that consisting of a number of communities over which there is a centralized (core) super structure authority which is either represented by a single individual or an association of individuals.

Hence, the centralized states were well-organized, with their people living in good life with better military organization when compared to those ones of the stateless societies.  Examples of centralized societies include -Buganda, Bunyoro, Ndebele, Dahomey, Benin and the Zulu.

On the other hand. the segmentary or decentralized societies were stateless societies whose sole existence was based on clan, tribal or family basis which formed independent political units. Examples of such states include the Iteso, the Igbo, the Masai and the Yoruba.

In studying Africa's pre-colonial societies, one needs to look into the political, social and economic organization of any given society by the mid 19th century so as to be able to refute with evidence the allegation of Eurocentric History writers.

 

Kingdoms/Centralised states

These were societies, which had well defined political structures, where power centred around one person called king or chief assisted by several other officials below him and answerable to him. In these societies, the ruler or king had absolute powers even over the life of his subjects. Examples of these societies include among others; Buganda, Zulu, Ndebele, Gaza, Asante, Bunyoro, Dahomey, Benin, Mandinka and many others.

-    These states were able to produce beyond their needs.

-     They had a wide range of economic activities and they accumulated a lot of wealth. For example, they carried out agriculture, pastoralism, fishing, iron working, cotton weaving, trade, local and external trade, hunting, raiding and many others.

The majority of these societies had tributary or vassal states from which they got tributes. Kingdoms always raided weak and small societies around them for survival.

-     Religion was vital in centralized societies although the emphasis they put on it varied from state to state.

-     Religion in all the states was used to raise the ruler over other people as they considered him to have divine powers. Religion united people together.

-     It made people to be loyal to the rulers yet in later years it was used to fight against European colonial intrusion. In most of the states, there was social stratification of people for example at clan, tribe or caste levels.

-     In most kingdoms or states, the clans were vital as basic social units that bound people together.

-     Most states or kingdoms had standing armies, for security, trade purposes, conquests, expansion wars, protection of the king and many others.

-     In states, power was hierarchical or pyramidal where there was one top most official and very many officials as one descended to the grass roots.

Their judicial system was hierarchical and the courts were arranged in the same manner. Succession or ascending to the throne was mainly hereditary.

 

Kingdoms or states in most cases had big ceremonies and festivals on seasonal basis or annual. For example, the first fruits festival among the Zulu or Odwira festival among the Asante. In almost all of them, there was skillful use of marriage by kings to create unity. For example, in Buganda, the Kabaka married from all the clans.

A state by definition simply means a politically organized people of a definite territory who respond to common political control i.e a central authority of leadership.  In which case therefore, a centralized state or society may be defined as consisting of a number of communities ruled by a central authority.  This centralized authority may be represented by a king or by an association of individuals who formulate regulations and laws governing the whole centralized community.  Classical examples of centralized societies include Buganda, the Zulu, Bunyoro, the Ndebele, the Asante, the Fon among others.

Note should however be taken that there were also some smaller kingdoms but with similar characteristics as those of the first ones. They included those of the Atyak, Peijule and Paimori in Northern Uganda. Unfortunately because of their small size they are not known by many scholars.

Politically, usually a central authority represented either by a king or by an association of individuals was the overall controller of all political, economic and social affairs of a given society.  It was organized in a way that society had to be administered, by making policies and regulations without being questioned by the people concerned.  Also it was the central authority which controlled the army, land and other affairs of that society, it’s decisions were final, in other words, centralized systems epitomized the highest degree of autocracy in the pre-colonial African societies.

Ascendency to power in Kingdoms was on a hereditary basis. The successor was named by the previous king or in some cases a council of elders would decide on one of the king's sons to succeed him in case he had not named any at the time of his death.

The administrative system was highly bureaucratic with the king as the final authority. The king wielded a lot of power and was often autocratic and with despotic powers.

Kingdoms were either centralised or decentralised in case the kingdom was large, the king had chiefs with delegated powers. However in any case these served at the pleasure of the king and his word was still final.

Militarily, most of these societies had a regular well trained and equipped army which equally was under the control and sole command of the central authority.  Their duties were the protection or defense of the society and expanding their territories.  Therefore, the survival of the central authority was greatly vested in the hands of the army.

As for the Judiciary, there was a hierarchical court system from the village level to the king who was usually the highest judge. His court was the highest court of appeal which resolved the most difficult conflicts and cases, he was the source of justice with power to save and kill. This serves to negate the Eurocentric claim that pre-colonial African societies were anarchical.

Economically, the economies of these states were controlled by a central authority but given that many of them were situated in the fertile tropical rain forest, the savannas and on the plateau and some by sea coastal plains, they were greatly involved in three types of economic activities.  Among these were agriculture, trade and industry.  Although tributes from the vassal states were also of great significance in some of these societies.

On the economic part still, most kingdoms were self sustaining although they sometimes depended on their neighbours. Most kingdoms depended on agriculture mainly producing for subsistance i.e not commercial for example the Baganda had matooke as the staple food, Dahomey had yams and Banyoro had millet. However some societies had a mixed economyfor exampleDahomey, Banyoro, Baganda and Ihe Ndebele they reared animals and grew crops. It should however be noted that some centralised societies were purely pastoral notable of which was Ankole.

Fishing was also commonly practised by people who lived near Lakes, big rivers and Islands for example Ssese and Buvuma. This was especially so in the interlacustrine states.

The king was the source of wealth for all his subjects. He controlled all the land and foreign trade, this made him the richest man and he was expected to treat his subjects with generosity.

The king levied taxes on his subjects and all those who came to his land .He controlled the use of all the money collected.

Conquered areas were Forced to rccogonise the authority of the king by paying tributes periodically in form of cattle ,slaves, ivory and other valuable items.

Wars of conquest and raids were an important source of wealth; during these wars soldiers looted a lot of property which they handed over to the king, in return the king distributed the booty to his faithful servants and his hard working soldiers.

Kingdoms often carried out local trade with their neighbours especially in commodities they were in short supply of for example the Banyoro and the Baganda exchanged salt for bark cloth and agricultural produce respectively; the Banyoro exchanged salt with the Iteso in exchange with iron implements, hides, skins among others. At a later stage most kingdoms got involved in Long distance trade which helped them to become even greater Empires and were even able to resist European penetration notable of which was Bunyoro.

Most kingdoms had blacksmiths who could make arrows, spears and hoes which were even sold. It follows that pre-colonial African societies had embarked on industralisation contrary to the Eurocentric view that by the dawn of European colonisation of Africa the continent was purely pre-industrial.

Hunting and gathering were major economic activities especially in long distance trade era. Items acquired through such activities included hides and skins, Rhino horns, arrows, head poison among others. This implies that to a large extent pre-colonial African economies were primitive.

Socially, these societies were characterized by social stratification in which societies were divided into classes including the ruling class of the nobility, the dignitaries, the class of the commoners and slaves. 

Closely related, women were grossly marginalised for they had a very little role to play especially in societies’ administration.  Their noble activities were confined to kitchens and gardens until post-colonial period era.

Socially, most kingdoms were composed of clans and a clan was the basic unit of social, political and economic organization. Members of each clan regarded themselves to be close relatives and couldn't marry from each other. Each clan had a totem.

Intermarriages among clan provided a bond of unity, in fact for this matter the king married from as many clans as possible; indeed this increased political stability in the kingdom.

Socially, the king or Emperor was the social head and presided over most important social state functions. Most kingdoms had annual celebrations that were also a source of unity and stability in the kingdom. Such ceremonies were initiation ceremonies, harvest ceremonies, marriage ceremonies, mock battles, games and sports among others. The Asante had Odwira festival, the Ndebele had Inxwala among others.

Religion was another social aspect that played a very important role as a uniting factor for the rulers were looked at as having a higher position than the ordinary men because they practiced both political and religious duties.  In other words, religion gave the kingly office extra-ordinary powers over the natural forces.  It also made the monarchy a symbol of unity of the entire community and a focus for the sentiment of loyalty.  The above analysis in all supplies an over view of the common features or characteristics of pre-colonial centralized societies whose details can be analyzed from the following case studies.