An independent church as defined by Assa Okoth is any movement or organisation whose inspiration was originally Christian which either afterwards broke away from missionary churches or formed independently. Independent churches in Africa were all under African control.

According to Bishop Sundler, they were of three categories of independent churches in Africa i.e. the European churches which claim to have inherited from what had been promised to Ethiopia in the Old Testament book of Psalms 68:31. The second one was the Zionist church which broke off from the American Pentecostal missionaries and the third was the Messianic church whose belief was that Jesus Christ was a Messiah for the Jews and Europeans and that it had no significance for Africans. The major causes behind the formation of the independent churches include:

In the last quarter of 19th Century particularly between 1883-1914, there emerged independent churches in the history of Africa which were some form of opposition churches against the European churches.  These included Ethiopian churches, Zionist churches, Messianic all as a protest against the European mission  churches.

The emergence of these churches can be explained by a number of factors among which included the limited contribution of African culture in European churches because missionaries didn’t support Ethiopianism that is Africanisation of churches for example Europeans were reluctant to Africanise priesthood let alone promote Africa bishops ever since the  times of Samuel Ajayi Crowther.  This is what mainly annoyed Africans who opted to develop their own churches.

Closely related, the discrimination by the European missionaries of the Africans angered the African nationalists for  some Africans were denied religious services such as baptism, holy communion among others. because of their culture.

The rigid and the complicated demands made by the white missionaries for the Africans to become Christians like undergoing lengthy grades of catechism, paying church dues, doing away with polygamous marriages greatly angered the Africans which led them to open their own churches.  Classical  examples include the Mokalapa of Barotseland.

It’s also argued that the influence of Ethiopia especially after the defeat of the Italians at Adowa greatly inspired the people to move in for Ethiopianism and this was catalysed by the biblical quotation in Psalm 68.31.

      “Ethiopia shall stretch her hands on to God”.  This quotation potrayed Ethiopia as the centre of African Christianity and inspired leaders such as Charles Domingo, Elliot Kamwana, Mokalapa to joint them and establish Ethiopian churches.

Other scholars also argue that Africans had expected a black Messiah because they had heard of Isaiah Shembe among the Zulu and Simon Kimbagu in Belgium Congo wo claimed to have had visions from God. They therefore disqualified Jesus as a Messiah of the whites and Jews and formed African churches in preparation for the coming of an African Messiah.

Furthermore, its worth noting that some independent churches like zionism had even come before colonialism.  The first branch of the African methodist episcopal church from U.S.A. was established in Sierra-Leone in 1820 and other branches emerged in Sierra Leone and other neighbouring West African states for example in 1890’s and Afro-American bishop Michael Turner visited South Africa and ordained African bishops and pastors which provided a boost in the independence of churches in Central and South Africa.

In addition, propaganda from personalities such as Joseph Booth, Charles Domingo, Elliot Kamwana of Nyasaland, Mokalapa, had convinced people about opposition churches and inspired them to join the new religious faith.

These independent churches were also inspired by the oppressive system of colonialism characterised by taxation, land alienation, forced labour and generally exploitation to which case therefore Africans wanted to use independent churches as a way of doing away with colonialism of which Christianity was partly as one scholar rightly put it.

 “The conquered people cloaked their rejection of colonialism in a religious garb”.

Therefore the emergence of independent churches was a way of expressing protest to alien rule in a Christian context.

In addition, the destruction and brutalisation of African culture by the white missionaries such as denouncing of extended families, small gods, denouncing of African names as ungodly through baptism is what largely angered the people who had no other alternative than establishing their own churches.

The above situation was worsened by the poor leadership of the Christian churches for example the Livingstonia, brutal and unfeeling clergymen is what mainly annoyed African leaders who opted for no other alternative than establishing their own churches.

Conflict of African leadership in Christian churches:- Particularly in West Africa, the whites were not willing to transfer the top catholic churches to Africans. The ordination of the African clergymen in theological institutions was often postponed on unserious grounds which cost Africans a number of years to become priests. In Nigeria, for example, Bishop Samuel Ajayi spent abnormal years trying to become a Bishop and afterwards due to his excellent performance as a bishop accompanied by his popularity among Africans made Europeans force him out of office in favour of a European bishop. This led to the rise of the United Native African Church in Nigeria. Similary in central Africa Nyasaland, the Livingstonia Mission forced Elliot Kamwana, Charles Domingo form their native churches because of this leadership segregation. In Ethiopia still a similar reason worked to explain the emergence of independent churches.

Some missionaries in Africa were racists and quite segregative in nature. Good cases in point are missionaries who worked in Zulu-land in South Africa. The Zulu people were being exploited and were undergoing intense racial white segregation. This led to the formation of independent church movement in areas that were already affected by this European pressure for example Natal. Therefore, an attempt to recreate a pure Zulu society culminated into the formation of independent Churches.

Conclusively, therefore, the emergence of independent churches was largely as a result of the protest or Africans against discrimination and the oppressive rule of the European churches for in their view missionaries had a bible in one hand and a sword in the other.  It was therefore in this light that their relationship was short-lived as later evident in the emergence of about 3400 independent churches in the history of Africa.

THE INDEPENDENT CHURCHES IN WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICA

The emergence of independent churches varied in terms of reasons from one country to another for instance in 1884, the Germans colonised Cameroon and the British Pioneer Baptist Missions were forced to withdraw and hand over to the German missionaries and to this note, a section of the African members of the pioneer British churches refused to submit to the German missionaries and set up their own united native churches.

Similarly in 1888, the African Baptist seceded from the American Baptist Mission in Lagos because the local missionary attempted to over-ride the autonomy of the local congregation.

In 1891 the United Native African church was formed in Nigeria by a group of break away Yoruba-Anglicans and Methodists who in doctrines permitted polygamy in African culture.  This is itself became an independent church that won the support of the people because of respect for traditional culture.

In 1901 the African church nicknamed Bethel was formed out of a majority of members of the Anglican bread fruit church of Lagos whose laity demanded more  flourishing field of independence such that by 1917 there were about 17 independent churches in Nigeria the most famous of the Nigerian independent churchmen was Moyola later president  of the African Baptist union of West Africa which spread along the coast of Sierra-Leone as far as Congo.

According to his ideas, African churches were to be based on African cultures, should be an expression of African personalities and any religion before research should go to African religion than Christianity i.e he rejected the view of more Europeanisation than Africanisation of religion.  This to him would call for African styles of wearing African hymns in church, tunes composed by African or African congregations than those introduced by missionaries, that is the culture or the church must be “Africanised”.  More of his followers included William Wade Harris a Liberian Protestant evangelist who tolerated polygamy and made 60,000-100,000 converts in the regions of West Africa like ivory coast only to be expelled in 1916 when his followers begun to agitate for nationalistic freedom.

In regard to Malawi, the year of 1898, marked the end of initial primary resistances but set a background for the formation of African churches which came as a result of a general set of grievances common to all colonial countries such as land alienation by white settlers and companies, collection of hut-taxes, forced labour, exploitation of the masses but most importantly slow African development in the European dominated churches although within the period i.e 1898-1914 a number of Africans were appointed to responsible positions in church among these included Johannal Barnaba Abdallah who was ordained an Anglican priest similarly in 1906, Austin Ambali and Leonard Kamungu were appointed African deacons and others were made ministers of the Livingstonia church.

Despite these appointments, the Africanisation of the church was still in a slow process and this angered some members of the community who decided to establish their own independent churches most dominant figures in Malawi included Elliot Kamwana, Charles Domingo, John Chilembwe and a radial European Joseph Booth who believed in “Africa for Africans” who was though later deported for going against the white doctrine still influenced events by correspondences from South Africa especially among the followers whose support he had won.

Elliot Kamwana once a member of the Livingstonia mission in Central Africa decided to quit in 1901 as a protest against the introduction of school fees and with the encouragement of Booth, Kamwana begun to spread the teachings of the Watch Tower Bible and the Jehovah society witness; prophesied the eminent second coming of Christ and the end of the British rule and taxes in which he gained about 10,000 adherents especially among the Tonga people living around Livingstone.  He was later arrested and deported to the South where he maintained his influence by correspondence and indeed the Watch Tower movement was maintained and spread as far as Zambia, Zimbabwe among others.

Likewise Charles Domingo a Scotland church minister left the Livingstonia mission and in 1909, he joined the Watch Tower movement, but later became a seventhday Baptist in 1910 which by doctrine rejected monogamy as incompatible with African culture although they accepted many facets of western civilisation such as western education, western religion although independent of the missionary influence.  This became a driving force for his movement which appealed to Booth and other white beneficiaries for teachers, salaries, books and other educational materials.   Unlike Kamwana, Domingo didn’t openly oppose colonialism.

Meanwhile John Chilembe was not only a prominent independent church man but also a leader of an armed rebellion against colonial rule.  A Yao by tribe, student of the church of Scotland once Booth’s house servant who later joined his movement and established his Baptist mission where he largely preached contemporary black Americans ideas which he had acquired in USA at Virginia Theological College;  he built schools, hospitals and introduced strict hygiene programme, banned alcoholism in 1909 he established the natives independent union but when he became radical against colonization he was defeated and he disappeared from the book s of history.

In South Africa, not all independent churches were influenced by the black diaspora but even ideas from foreign countries.  Among the independent churches established was the Nehemiah Tiles Thembu church in the Eastern cape colony led by the blacks all as a result of the conditions of the black people, loss of land to the whites, emergence of migrant labour and generally the apartheid rule.

Meanwhile, the year of 1890s saw a series of break away from the European dominated churches such as the Anglican church, Presbyteriaon church, the methodist church, Lutheran church all prompted by the events in the black diaspora and in Ethiopia such as the arrival of the African Methodist episal of USA to South Africa and Ethiopia’s defeat of the Italians at Adowa in 1896 inspired black South African Christians to look at Ethiopia as an African Empire and a Christian community that proved Africans could run their own affairs therefore Ethiopia inspired Ethiopianism such that by 1914 there were over 30 Ethiopia churches in South Africa.

In conclusion therefore, although the emergence of independent churches in different parts of Africa may have varied in terms of reasons but there are general factors that apply to all independent churches most important of which was opposition against missionary doctrines and opposition to colonization in general.

THE ROLE PLAYED BY MISSIONARIES IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA.

In course of missionary humanitarian and civilisation activities, they played a great role as agents of colonialism in Africa. They were strong instruments towards the establishment of colonial rule in Africa hence the assertion that "the flag followed the cross" which means behind missionaries came politicians/colonisers or "missionaries came with a bible in one hand and a sword in the other".

As they fought ignorance, poverty and creation of the infrastructure, these were a conducive atmosphere in Africa which colonialists operated specifically they played the following roles in the colonisation of Africa.

They appealed for home government protection: In the name of "protection" they came claiming to be protected against the African hostility. For example in central Africa staged by Lobengula of Ndebele, in Buganda by Kabaka Mwanga and religious conflicts of 1888-93 in Buganda, northern Nigeria threats created by Islamic chiefs among others. all of them made missionaries feel insecure in Africa. For the sake of their safety and the continuation of their evangelical enterprises, they appealed to their home governments for protection which was followed by colonisation of specific territories where missionaries operated.

Missionary role in treaty signing. Missionary interpretation role, persecution and propaganda contributed a lot towards the colonisation of Africa. For example, the role played by bishop Tucker as an interpreter in the signing of Buganda agreement of 1900, the regents of the Kabaka who signed on behalf of Buganda government was quite important. Its against this background that Sir Harry Johnstone, a representative of the British in the signing of Buganda agreement of 1900 had this to say:

"I shall be bound to acknowledge the assistance offered to me by the missionaries especially the Church Missionary Society. Without their  assistance on my side, I don't think Buganda would accept to sign the treaty which practically places themselves, their country and their people entirely in the hands of British".

The case of missionary Moffat in central Africa who was also very instrumental in securing treaties for British government should not be left out.

The provision of vital of information: Missionaries gave to the colonialists vital information as regards the peaceful and hostile societies to deal with resourceful areas in Africa, knowledge about the navigable rivers and lakes, climate and diseases of Africa among others. all of which made the colonialists to decide with which method of occupation they should impose in every specific area of Africa for example peaceful method was used to bring Buganda under colonial rule while military attack was employed in Bunyoro, similarly the Mandika empire of Samoure Toure of West Africa was occupied by force by the Frenchmen while the Fante and Tukulor empire were occupied by peaceful means. This was because of the prior information about Africa.

 Softened the hearts of the Africans. Missionaries by evangelizing the Baganda with biblical rendering words like "don't kill", "love your neighbour as you love your self among others. with such words Africans lost sense and morale of resisting against the colonialists hence heading to colonisation of various African societies such as Baganda, Shona, Fante, etc and in areas where missionaries were resisted, given a poor reception such as Bunyoro, Nandi, Mandika and Ndebele, it was hard to extend colonialism there, ie the method of military conquest was applied.

 Religious divisionism: African resistance against colonialism was further weakened by disunity caused by religious factions, for example in Buganda in 1888-93, there were religious wars between the Muslims, Protestants (Wangereza) which led to a lot of instability and by the coming of 

colonialists into Buganda, the Baganda natives could not unite against them because of these religious divisions.

Collaboration with Chartered Companies: In West Africa the royal Niger company worked hand in hand with many British originating missionary groups like the Church Missionary Society and London Missionary Society. Once remarked by Emperor Theodore II when he was trying to defend his independence of Ethiopia by denying the entry of missionaries into his kingdom he had this to say:

"I know the tactics of European governments, first they send missionaries, the traders to support the missionaries and finally the Battalions (Colonial soldiers) to support the consuls".

This culminated into the formation of a team work affair that worked hand in hand towards the colonisation of the African continent for example in Buganda, British government sent missionaries first Church Missionary Society (C.M.S) followed by the Chartered company Imperial British East African Company (l.B.E.A.Co) who later were accompanied by Lugard and Sir Gerald Portal with garrisons full of soldiers mainly of African origin and by 1894 a British protectorate government had to be declared over Uganda.

Besides, Chartered companies were financially assisted by other groups in case of financial shortfall for example in 1892, the Imperial British East African Company fell bankrupt and it was funded by the church missionary society up to 1893. Therefore various European agents worked hand in hand with missionaries in leading to the colonisation of specific African territories by their mother countries.

Missionary education system: This also produced products who assisted the colonialists in taking over of African territories for example various European languages were taught in these missionary schools for example English, French, Germany, Dutch and their local African languages. This study removed the language barrier which would have disturbed the establishment of colonial rule.  Africans out of these schools were used as secretaries, office messengers, clerks and interpreters hence accelerating the speed for colonisation of Africa.

Missionaries further influenced the colonisation of Africa by condemning African barbaric cultures and neglecting African names for Baptism. This made Africans to believe that European institutions, cultures among others. were better. For this matter, resisting missionary or any European powers was considered as being unprogressive and this greatly weakened the African spirit of resistance hence making it easy for colonisation of Africa.

Formation of collaborating class:- Missionary education similarly created a class of Africans who served as efficient instruments in the establishment of colonial rule for example in central Africa, chief Lewanika had attained some education from these schools, Semei Kakungulu in East Africa who colonised Eastern Uganda were all products of these missionary schools.

Missionaries stopped slave trade and from then, Africans could not fear the white men as slave traders. The coming of colonialists was considered as a blessing in various comers of Africa as they expected gifts as Missionaries were not doing to them slavery activities which led to the eventual colonisation of Africa.

Missionaries laid an economic backbone of the colonialists. This was done by stopping slave trade and by replacing it with legitmate trade which saw the introduction of cash crops like coffee, cotton, palm oil, cocoa into African territories that were cultivated, sold to whites as raw materials as they were needed by European industries. In return, Africans would get money that they paid to European government as taxes. This system came to a climax in 1880s during the colonial period which made many European countries to compete for colonies in Africa so as to get a source of raw materials for their home industries hence leading to the colonisation of Africa.

Effective occupation: - To fulfill the contract made in Berlin conference in 1884-85, missionaries took it upon themselves to build the necessary social economic infrastructure so that in future their government would have a right claim to occupy effectively these specific areas. They therefore built roads, health centres and schools all of which supported the colonial administration of Africa.

Missionaries emphasised the anti nationalistic education in Africa. Their education system was organised in such a way that Africans became the admirers of every thing from Europe. The potential African registers were taken to overseas to be brain washed. Others who remained in Africa were concentrated on elementary education such as bible study, how to read and write vernacular languages, how to become secretaries, house boys, messengers among others.

They totally rejected the liberal education for example political science, law international relations among others. because these were capable of arousing the African resistance against colonialism. They also neglected technical subjects for example engineering, medicine etc so that Africa could never develop her own skilled manpower.

Missionary education further more trained Africans who served in colonial offices as nurses, teachers, low level administrators, Clerks, Office messengers among others. These Africans had attended the missionary school and knew how to read and write. It will be recalled that colonial government lacked enough manpower from their home governments and therefore this supplemented their administration manpower in colonial Africa.

 Besides the above, mission stations were used as colonial government headquarters. This was evident in Buganda where colonialists staged at Mengo with missionaries. In Malawi, missionaries shared Shire town with colonialists. In "Nigeria they both stayed at Abeokuta and Lagos. Therefore missionaries were forerunners of colonialism since they provided the initial infrastructure to the colonisers.

In conclusion therefore, Missionaries in Africa were a product of the industrial society in Europe. This was because behind their humanitarian motives lay economic aims for which Africa was colonised. It's indeed very true to assert that "the flag followed the cross" and therefore European colonisation of Africa could have been difficult without missionary assistance. This view concurs with the appreciation statement coined by Sir Harry Johnson when talking about assistance accorded to him by the members of the Church Missionary Society and their converts in the signing ofBuganda agreement.