ORIGIN OF LIBERIA

Liberia like Sierra Leone was founded as a state for the freed Negro slaves from America for by 1790 over 60,000 Negro slaves had lived in America and by 1800 the number had risen and it was therefore the social conditions of these slaves characterised by poverty, unemployment, illiteracy and generally social discrimination in the American society that provoked the sympathy of the humanitarians or philanthropists who as far back as 1816 had formed themselves into the American colonisation society (ACS) and these later embarked on a scheme of founding a settlement for the freed slaves this is what Rev. Robert Gurley named as Liberia which is derived from Liberal meaning “A land of the free” whose capital became Monrovia named after the then American president Monroe.

Its however argued that this project was undertaken for the benefit of both Africa and the American for partly it aimed at being used as a ground for christianisation of the Africans, civilisation and suppression of slave trade in Africa.  It’s therefore under these circumstances that Liberia was founded as a multi-purpose settlement i.e Philanthropic, religious, political and economic reasons therefore in 1820-21 the first batch of the immigrants was settled the island of Sherbo but due to a number of problems, the settlement was later moved to Cape Mesurado however even in this place problems continued to affect the earlier settlers.

In fact, in the beginning Liberia was referred to as “a lone star” a tittle that seemed to have been derived from the fact that her flag was identified with a single star but the most important was that this description was largely derived from the initial problems faced by the earlier settlers (Creoles of Liberia).

Among these problems included:  four climatic conditions characterised by diseases, deaths, difficult geographical conditions such as forests which largely affected the lives of earlier settlers notably the Negro Americans.

Furthermore the Liberians were affected by the limited supply in terms of finances and to her resources for the assistance from the American colonisation society and other humanitarian organisations became very inadequate which made it very difficult for the earlier settlers to survive.

In addition, the Afro-Americans were also faced with the problem of hostile reception from the local indigenous natives notably the Grebo, Vai, Gola and the Kru.  These greatly clashed with earlier settlers largely as a result of the cultural differences between the new Creoles and the indigenous people who kept as attacking them from time to time thus making their lives very difficult as new comers in the area.

It’s also argued that the new settlers were also faced with the hostilities and harsh administration of the white officials who were sent to govern them by imposing the American constitution which entailed them to swear allegiance to the white officials who had the powers to appoint or dismiss them and it was as oppression of the white officials that J.B Webster (1981) described as

“The arrogance and despolism of the white officials”. 

It’s therefore partly from this basis that the Negroes begun to fight for their independence by trying to call a conference for constitutional reform which traced its way as far back as 1839 when the Negroes begun to fight for their own leadership and indeed it was in 1841 that J.J. Roberts was appointed as the first non-white governor and this begun the roots towards Liberia independence which became a reality in 1847 when Liberia was finally given her independent from a humanitarian society and thus becoming an independence republic under J.J. Roberts as the first president.  Right from the beginning the Liberians had come up with their motto

“The love of liberty brought us here” which is a manifestation of their desire to maintain their independence which they won on the 26th of June 1847.  The concern therefore is the extent to which the Liberian succeeded in living up to their motto “the love of liberty brought us here.”

Following their motto, the Liberians begun to find means of how they would maintain their liberty and this was evident in their local administration which was characterised by the struggle for the development of national loyalty and unity through creating amicable relationships with the local people who were initially hostile to them. J.J. Roberts employed the method of assimilation in which the local people were absorbed into the new America-Liberians which brought unity and harmony between the two groups which were not easy to penetrate thus their ability to live up to their motto “The love of liberty brought us here”.  Hence, one can rightly argue that one of the ways through which the Liberians preserved their motto was the abolition of colour prejudice which was inherited from America in favour of the policy of cultural assimilation.

Furthermore, at the eve of their independence, the Afro-Americans had two political powers notably the Republican party led by J.J. Roberts and represented the interests of the white Negroes or Mullatoes and the True wigs party founded by Edwards Roye representing the interests of the fully blooded Negroes.  The existence of these two Negro parties begun to bring conflicts in Liberia such that there was a high likelihood that this would breed disunity that would be easily be exploited by the colonialists to make  them lose their independence this however was solved through the introduction of the one party system which finally brought unity in Liberia subsequently able to maintain her independence and indeed live up to their motto

      “The love of liberty brought us here.”

Economically, the loss of Liberians independence was to begin within the economic sphere for the attempts by J.J. Roberts to earn revenue for the administration of Liberia by imposing customs duty on traders met a lot of resistance from notably the French and British who argued that “Liberia was neither a colony of the Americans nor an independent colony”, and therefore she didn’t have the international status of imposing customs duties.  This however continued until 1847 when Liberia identified herself as an independent colony thus begun to economically sustain her own although in the 1880’s Liberia begun to suffer economically decline partly as a result of the economic depression 1929 and the competition from European countries such as Britain and France which had developed palm oil, Raphia palm fibres, coffee especially in Brazil all of which isolated Liberia from the world trade.

This economic decline greatly exposed Liberia to the chance of losing her independence to the extent that by 1900 German traders had begun to move into Liberia but it was the out break of the first world war in 1914 that helped Liberia escape the German arm of colonialism as the British navy cut off Liberias trade thus saving her independence and therefore maintaining their motto “The love of liberty brought us here”.

As far back as 1906, a British firm known as the Liberia rubber corporation begun to work in the region and indeed Britain had invested a lot of its capital in Liberia and wanted to exploit this opportunity by taking over the supervising the finances of Liberia which had been in a depression and the leadership of Liberia obtained a war from America paid off a British debt and therefore managed to escape British colonialism.

It can also be argued that the escape of Liberias independence was also largely facilitated by America which was by this time uninterested in colonialism and had partly founded this settlement not as an American colony but as a humanitarian venture for the settlement of freed slaves.

The above view can rightly be supported by the fact that when the European powers notably France, Germany, Great Britain wanted to take over the independence of Liberia, Brooker T. Washington an influential black American addressed the attention of America to the imperialistic designs especially of Britain on Liberia which forced President Theodore Roosevelt to bring diplomatic pressure upon the governments of London, Paris and Berlin thus saving Liberia from colonialism.

It’s therefore partly from this basis notably the influence of America, her position in Liberia, able leadership notably that of J.J. Roberts that Liberians were able to escape the arm of European colonialism thus living up to their motto “The love of liberty brought us here”.

Liberia therefore like Sierra Leone were both founded as settlements for the freed slaves as denoted in their naming i.e Liberia which means a land of the free and Freetown to symbolise the purpose for which it had been founded.

In the same way, both Sierra Leone and Liberia were founded under similar circumstances i.e the pathetic conditions of the freed slaves both in Britain and America are what later provoked the sympathy of the humanitarians to found the settlements for the freed slaves.

It’s has also been argued that both the America-Liberians and the Creoles found almost similar difficulties in the new homes the most outstanding of which being hostility from indigenous tribes notably the Temne-Mende for the Creoles and the Vai, Kru and Grebo for the Liberians.

The above state of affairs largely came as a result of the cultural conflict between the indigenous people and the new breeds.

Lastly, both states became very significant in the history of 19th Century for they marked the beginning of a new relationship between West Africa and the outside world notably Europe and America and indeed its little wonder that both Sierra Leone and Liberia became the centres or seed beds of West African civilisation.

SIERRA LEONE

1.                Trace the origin of Sierra Leone in the History of West Africa.

2.                What were the causes and consequences of the hut tax wars or the Temne Mende  revolt of  1898 in Sierra Leone.

3.                Discuss the role of the Creole in the development of West Africa.

4.                “The mother/author or the nursery bed of West African civilisation” is this a true description of Sierra Leone in the 19^th Century West Africa?

The foundation of Sierra Leone came as a result of the attempt by the British philanthropists to stop slavery and slave trade for it must be remembered that it was a practice of the British planters in the West Indies who were going home either on leave or retirement to take along with them Negro domestic slaves such that by about 1772 there were over 17,000 such slaves in Great Britain and these were later increased by the slaves who had fled to England following the conclusion of the American revolution such that all those slaves who had settled in Jamaica, Nova Scotia joined their colleagues and Britain became a “melting port” of the settlement of slaves.

It was this state of affairs that forced chief justice Mansfield to pass a decree regarding the place of slaves and slave trade under which it was instituted in English law and constitution to make slaves free.  This decision greatly alarmed the owners of slaves who consequently decided to abandon the slaves.

It’s imperative to note that by the time of Mansfield’s decree, the slaves were not prepared for emancipation and therefore couldn’t effectively support themselves thus the slaves resorted to begging, became street dwellers and unemployed and generally public nuisances in the English society.  It was this state of affairs that aroused pity from the British humanitarians/philanthropists in the likes of Granville Sharpe, William Wilberforce who decided to form a committee of relieving the “black poor”.

As far back as 1773, Granville Sharpe had proposed to settle these slaves along the coast of West Africa and was supported by Sir Henry Smeathman who recommended Sierra Leone as a suitable place for the settlement of the freed slaves.  This idea was wholesomely welcomed and in 1789 the first group of these unfortunate black poor was thereby settled and its under these circumstances that Sierra Leone was founded as a settlement for freed slaves from Britain with the Capital Free Town to signify the purpose for which Sierra Leone was founded.

In 1807 after the British had settled their first batch of the freed slaves, they embarked on the scheme of abolishing slave trade and committed themselves on this task but since Britain needed a strong naval base, to carry out this work, Sierra Leone by her geographical setting and her good harbours was used as a base.

It was because of her geographical structure that on 1st January 1888 Sierra Leone was declared as the first British crown colony in West Africa where the British based to fight against the notorious activity of slave trade such that during their period of stay, many slaves were rescued from the ships that were still carrying on for this abolished evil trade some of whose origins were of modern Nigeria, Gambia and Gold coast (Ghana).

These slaves finding themselves completely cut off from their own societies, many of them decided to respond positively to the opportunities offered by the new environment and thus adopted to the new cultural traits such as religion, language, technical skills, mode of dress, mannerism of the colonies elite of the English administrative and missionaries such that there emerged a new type of an African, a man of two worlds and this new breed came to be referred to as the Creoles-essentially black although they had a slight mixture of white blood resembling the Millaties of the Gold Coast a group of people who had developed a culture which was neither pure black nor pure European although most of them had mixed up with the Europeans and thus looked at themselves as more superior to the indigenous people and had even developed their own language “Krio” which according to Abdu Boahen was

      “English language Africanised”.[1]

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CREOLES AND INDIGENOUS TEMNE-MENDE 1898

The Creoles right from the Genesis of their coming to Freetown regarded themselves as socially superior to the indigenous inhabitants notably the Temne and Mende who were the most important tribes in the Sierra Leone interior.  As a result therefore, the Creoles dominated the most important sectors in Sierra Leone such as education, administration and generally the government offices.  It was this dominance of the Creoles over the indigenous races that greatly angered the Temne-Mende people who decided to revolt against the dominance in what became the Temne-Mende revolt of 1898.

The Creoles regarded the Temne-Mende cultures as barbaric, primitive, backward and outdated and therefore needed to be abolished its this cultural arrogance and aggression of the Creoles that was received by the indigenous people who found no alternative but to revolt in what became the Temne-Mende revolt of 1898.

By the 1890’s, a police force was formed greatly a composition of the Creoles who were spread in the hinterland of Sierra Leone to enforce law and order according to the tunes of the colonial government and as a way of showing their authority, they used all forms of savage and oppressive means which included bellying, looting, raping, flogging of chiefs in public (daylight) policies that couldn’t be absorbed by the local people and therefore they had no alternative but to revolt against the good-for-nothing policies in what came to be the Temne-Mende revolt of 1898.

Apart from the cultural fact, the Temne-Mende revolts were caused by political factors which included the desire by the indigenous people to fight for their independence for after the British had declared Sierra Leone a protectorate, a British governor Cardew at Freetown appointed District Commissioner to administer different parts of the colony and these started undermining and interfering with the powers of the chiefs something that the people could not tolerate.  They therefore decided to revolt in order to get rid of the Free-town government.

Furthermore, the government was characterised by inefficiency and corruption in administration which was a great shame according to the local customs and people therefore saw it as worth while to revolt against the government.

Economically, in 1896, the government at Free-town passed an ordinance on land stating that all minerals were to become property of the crown and that any unutilised land would be given to the settlers.  By this decision, the British government at Freetown did not understand the African customs and ways of living for there was no wasteland in Sierra Leone and the people used shifting cultivation methods such that the lest land was always fallow land which the British mistook for wasteland hence this alienation of their land greatly angered the indigenous people who decided to do away with the good for nothing policy in what became the Temne-Mende revolts.

The climax of their grievances was to arise from the hut tax issue from where this rebellion sometimes traces its tittle “The hut-tax wars of 1898”.

In 1896, governor Frederick Cardew order that a 10/= tax must be imposed on houses with more than three rooms and a 5/= tax on smaller ones.  The people greatly resented this tax for they argued that they never had permanent houses and neither did they have absolute possession of their houses.  To them this also seemed that the people were only paying rent for their own houses in fact it was a way of denying them their domestic independence.

It was under the above situation that the first persons to rebel against this tax were the chiefs of the Temne-Mende who urged his local people to follow suit such that when the British sent a delegation to the chiefs asking them to change their decision, the chiefs reacted in the same way and in the year of 1898 when the British tried to collect hut tax at the port of Loko, chief Bai-Bureh of the Mende refused to pay this tax and the British accused him of having inspired the people not to pay the taxes and they therefore sent the troops to go and enforce their policy, the local people arranged themselves and declared a war against the British in what became the Temne-Mende revolt or the hut-tax wars of 1898 in which many Creoles and Europeans missionaries and administrators were killed in cold blood and soon the rebellion spread to the Northern part of Sierra Leone.

Like many African resistances, the Temne-Mende wars were suppressed and the British authorities came to conclude that a more effective system of administration needed to be established in the interior.

The Freetown government realised that if it were to survive and live in peace and stability, the Northern part of the interior of Sierra Leone had to be included in the Freetown colony and the British protectorate to be declared over the whole of Sierra Leone.

The British in fear that the chiefs would perhaps team up with the British rivals notably the French which would mean an end to British rule in Sierra Leone, the government (Brit.) deemed it vital to take over direct control of the administration especially using the local chiefs as CO-partners at the expense of the Creoles who were withdrawn from the scheme of indirect rule i.e no longer employed as administrators, police officers and representatives of the local people.  In other words, the hut-tax wars did as an end result lead to the decline of the Creoles in the history of Sierra Leone.

Lastly, in this light of the oppressive policies used by the Creoles were now abolished and the British government adopted anti-Creole policies whereby their dominance in education, civil service, missionary activities were henceforth taken over by English men which therefore largely undermined the predominant position of Creoles in the politics of Sierra-Leone and paved way for the local people.  Therefore with the leadership of the British, there was effective development in the economic and social aspects which was later to identify Sierra Leone as the mother of West African cilivisation.

SIGNIFICANCE OF SIERRA LEONE IN DEVELOPMENT OF WEST AFRICAN CIVILISATION

Question   Assess the role played by the Creoles in the development of West Africa.

From the historical point of view, Sierra Leone became very significant for her foundation as the first British crown colony marked a new era in the relationship between Africa and the rest of Europe.

Closely related, Sierra Leone being the first British crown colony which was occupied in 1808 marked an era of the British colonial imperialism in the history of West Africa in the sense that Sierra Leone was used as a stepping stone for the British expansionism to other West African states such as Gold Coast (Ghana), Nigeria, Gambia among others.with the aid of the preventative squadron passed at Freetown.

Socially, the foundation of Sierra Leone as a settlement for the freed slaves marked the end of three centuries of slave trade and other commercial exploitations to an era of humanitarian activity where slave trade was henceforth replaced with legitimate trade.  It’s therefore partly from this basis that Sierra Leone is regarded as very significant in the development of  West Africa.

In addition, Sierra Leone was made up of liberated Negroes who formed a single homogenous Creole community with a predominantly western culture who greatly influenced the development of not only Sierra Leone but generally West Africa.  It’s therefore in this light that Freetown has been regarded by scholars as an intellectual centre of the 19th Century West Africa and indeed Sierra Leone as the athens of West Africa or the nursery bed of West African cilivisation.  In the 1890’s many of the Creoles migrated to their former home areas greatly influencing the development of society in those places like Yorubaland.

The above analysis can rightly be evident in the role played by the Creoles in the development of West Africa and it’s civilisation the greatest of which being in the field of education and missionary activities which seemed to trace their roots in Sierra Leone whereby the first generation of educated West Africans traced their origin from the number of secondary schools for both boys and girls and teacher training colleges the most outstanding of which being the Fourah-Bay College which was established in 1827 and later in 1876 it became the first university in Sierra Leone and at that West Africa therefore providing education to the children of Sierra Leone and West Africa generally.  It’s therefore partly from this analysis that Sierra Leone has been described as a nursery bed of West African cilivisation.

Closely related, these institutions produced the most outstanding educated Creoles among whom included John Thorpe the first black Sierra Leone lawyer, William Davis and Africans Horton the first black doctors of western medicine, Samuel Lewis the first black newspaper editor and owner, first mayor of Free Town, first African to be granted the Cambridge and oxford degrees and to be given the title of the knight.  Therefore, the Creoles are remembered for having supported the development of education through establishing institutions that produced the best professional such as doctors, teachers, lawyers, clergymen among others.

It’s therefore partly from this basis that Sierra Leone has been described as the mother of West African civilization.

The Creoles are also remembered for having spread Christianity especially through the activities of Rev. Samuel Ajayi Crowther the first black Protestant bishop who was the first to bring Christianity along with his fellow catechists to the Niger territories and the delta city states through the creation of self-supporting churches and other Creoles continued to spread the gospel of Christianity as far as Gambia, Yoruba land and other parts of southern Nigeria.  It’s therefore from this analysis that Sierra Leone has been referred to as the athemn of West Africa.

Closely related, Freetown prospered and other areas of West Africa because of the assistance from “Their sons abroad” who sent money to their relatives as other wealthy Creoles gave money to charitable Organisations leading to the development of schools, churches, hospitals, among others..

The Creoles are also believed to have been the writers of the original books of West African languages, history, geography, medical research and they also acted as interpreters of African culture to the whites and vice-versa all of which provided a medium of civilisation and it’s in this light that Sierra Leone is regarded as the mother place of West African civilisation.

Economically, many Creole businessmen engaged in trade along the coast and many others migrated to different parts of West Africa the most historically known include R.B. Blaize who was born in Freetown and was one of the richest man in Lagos.

Similarly, James Horton became the richest in Gambia as many other traders and professionals from Sierra Leone settled in other parts of West Africa especially in cities like Accra, Lagos built houses, became prosperous landlords which was to the benefit of West Africa.

Politically, the 19th Century and 20th Century civil service in the British colonial of West Africa relied mainly on the Creole personnel in form of doctors, magistrates, administrators, heads of police among others..

Lastly the Creoles being elites were vanguards of West Africa nationalism through their writings the fires of nationalism begun to rise for example the writings of Williams Grant “West African reporter” and Rev. Joseph Claudins May’s “Sierra Leone weekly news” which greatly incited the forces of nationalism whose forces did not only end in Sierra Leone but spread in other parts like Nigeria, Gambia, Ghana, among others..

In conclusion therefore, from the above analysis Sierra Leone has been referred to as the nursery bed, the mother or the athens of West African civilisation however despite these developments’, the civilisation impact of Sierra Leone was only limited to the coastal areas of Gambia, Gold coast and Nigeria i.e majorly the West African British colonies but had little influence in the French colonies, Liberia and the Muslim states of the West African hinterland.

DECLINE OF CREOLES

Between 1898-1914, the importance of Creoles in the political, economic and social history of Sierra-Leone and West African in general begun to decline.

In Sierra-Leone governor Cardew, continued with a policy which aimed at keeping the Creoles out of the protectorate administration.  He rejected Creoles heads of department for instance J.C. Parker who was then head of native affairs.  Supported by the London government he laid down administrative reforms whereby only the English were to administer in the interior.  The colonial office further argued that apart from causing the hat tax war, Creoles had benefited a lot from the British conquests of the area.  In this way therefore Creoles influence was reduced while the influence of the Temne-Mende was allowed to rise in some sectors.

The British also started on a policy of openly discriminating against the Creoles and Creoles settled areas.  Roads connecting free town  with the interior were over looked or were non-constructed as away to punish the Creoles.

In the field of education Creoles dominance was also reduced.   There were fore example not allowed to give instructions in schools and instead the Temne-Mende were trained to occupy the junior positions in education and other administrative positions.

In the field of commerce, Creole merchants steadily lost control of their initial economic positions leading to their decline.  The French who had traded with them in some areas also diverted their caravans of ivory, gold and cattle away from Free Town to Conakry.  This was partly because Creoles had attempted to assist Sarowri Toure in his battle with the French.  By so doing therefore Creoles dominance in trade also declined.  With the coming of large European trading companies  Creoles lost in the whole sale trade and later in the home retail trade.  They were therefore eliminated from the economic sector that they had controlled for about seventy years.

The colonisation of other parts of Africa by other European powers also affected the position of Creoles.  In areas controlled by Germans and French, Creoles were sent away on ground that they were British sympathizers.

In missionary work Creoles also met difficulties Anglicans and Methodists begun to replace Creole archdeacons and supretendants with Europeans.  Bishop Samuel Ajayi was replaced by a European Bishop and thereafter no Creole or African was ever concentrated as Bishop for about sixty years.

The discovery of quinine and its wide spread later also helped to reduce Creole dominance.  This was because after the discovery more Europeans begun to work freely in parts of the interior unlike before when they had greatly relied on the Creoles.  The population of Europeans in the interior of West Africa also steadily increased and many of them begun to take up offices which Creoles had for a long time occupied.

With time, employment opportunities for graduates for Creole education system also reduced in this way the influence of Creoles through educated elites from Creole dominated schools also declined.  Colleges like Furah Bay declined in standards and by 1900 it was even closed down.

THE HUT TAX WAR (THE TEMNE-MENDE REBELLION OF 1898).

The Temne-Mende or Hut tax war was a revolt rose among the Temne and Mende People of Sierra Leone in West Africa against the British. As the title suggests, the spark to this revolt was rapid increase of tax per Hut (Hut tax) that affected many tribes in Sierra Leone but the people who were hit hardest were the Temne and the Mende people.

Sierra Leone as a colony was founded around 1792 as a settlement for freed slaves especially from the British. For this matter during the Scramble for and partition of Africa, this territory was reserved for British colonisation. In 1896, the activities of British colonialists went beyond Free Town when Sierra Leone hinterland was declared a British protectorate.

British used the Creole race they found settled in Free Town to extend British colonialism in the interior. These were brutal, harsh and cruel to the interior tribes which culminated into their rapid massive unpopularity. Their bad character was worsened by exploitative, suppressive and oppressive policies of the British which resulted into emergence of Temne- Mende rebellion.

Causes of the revolt;

The spark to the revolt was governor Cardew's hiking of Hut tax to unprecedented levels to meet the cost of colonial administration as Metropolitan British had not provided enough funds to his activities. He decided to introduce a Hut Tax of 10 shillings a year to be imposed on houses with more than three rooms and 5 shillings on smaller houses or its equivalent in rice or palm Kernels.

This tax adjustment encountered a stiff opposition from the local chiefs- It has been introduced without their consent and it was interpreted as loss of independence which they hated most thus the revolt was to reverse this situation.

The problem of forced labour was another cause for Temne and Mende war. This arose as a result for the need of labour by the settlers and the colonial governments. These lacked manpower, yet there was a need to construct roads, railways as well as to works on plantations. The solution to them, lay in forcing the interior peoples to provide labour that certainly annoyed the Temne and Mende.

The cultural arrogance of the Creoles was another cause of the war. They were employed in the administration because of their education they had attained from missionary influence. The Creoles took themselves as superior to Africans and regarded everything of African tradition as Barbaric. This cultural arrogance was resented by the Mende and Temne. Creoles were opposed to their Governor Cardew hence the war.

Another cause that is advanced to explain the outbreak of the hut tax war in Sierra Leone in 1898 was land alienation. It should be noted that by 1896 land ordinance Act on land allocation, all land in Sierra Leone with mineral resources was declared Crown land and that waste or inhabited land be allocated to white settlers. However, this met stiff opposition from the interior tribes which practiced shirting cultivation

With the influence of the Creoles in the interior, the missionaries followed and began their operation in the interior among the Temne and Mende. With their teaching, the missionaries were neglected by the Temne and Mende who argued that their teaching undermined the respect for their traditional institutions. The revolt thus was to expel the missionaries out of their land and to re-establish their traditional institutions.

Politically, the war was a popular desire for independence as governor Cardew once remarked: " The Temne and Mende people were sick of domination of the white man as reported by the District commissioners and the Frontier police force in Sierra Leone".

This was because the D.Cs in Sierra Leone that conflicted with the traditional authority of chiefs when people with no traditional authority and legitimacy were appointed into office. It was also common for the British aadministarators to punish without trial any chief considered disrespectful. Traditional chiefs were flogged, imprisoned, insulted and humiliated in all ways. The frontier police in Sierra Leone took the law in their hands. On top of this, these frontier policemen were recruited from former run away slaves and often tried to take revenge on their former masters.

In addition to all these, the chief judicial powers were greatly eroded. Justice was administered by the District commissioners and their agents who were ignorant of the customary law. People were imprisoned in a manner that did not conform with the law. The new administration in Sierra Leone was also arrogant, inefficient and corrupt. This was worsened by lack of personnel that caused the government to rely on the frontier police force.

Furthermore the Mende and Temne bitterly detested the Creole traders to whom they were first losing economic power. The British administration had placed the control of trade in the hands of Creole traders who were given licences. The Africans on the other hand were neglected. The Creole merchants fixed prices which the indigenous people resented and hence the beginning of the revolt.

Another cause that is advanced to explain the outbreak of the hut tax war in Sierra Leone in 1898 was land alienation. It should be noted that by 1896 land ordinance Act on land allocation, all land in Sierra Leone with mineral resources was decrared Crown land and that waste or inhabited land be allocated to white settlers,

The Creoles also suffered from different kinds of complex, for example, they spoke "Krio" (English language Africanised) in disregard of the local languages. This greatly made Temne and Mende discontented. They also dominated the frontier police force that had been established in 1890.

But their half caste background did not make them easily acceptable in the hinterland. This rejection increased their hostility as they ruled with a vengeance heart, bullied, looted and raged in the interior. Hence a cause for war.

The problem of forced labour was another cause for Temne and Mende war. Tin's arose as a result for the need of labour by the settlers and the colonial governments. These lacked manpower, yet there was a need to construct roads, railways as well as to works on plantations. The solution to them, lay in forcing the interior peoples to provide labour that certainly annoyed the Temne and Mende.

THE COURSE OF THE REVOLT,

The Temne and Mende war broke out in 1898- It was led by Bai Bureh ruler of the Temne State ofKassa. He and his people refused to pay the hut tax for which the police retaliated by attacking them which acted as spark to the war.

Being an experienced professional warrior who had hired out his military Services for over 30 years, Bureh organised a skillful guerilla war against the British expenditions through ambushes and bush fires. Bureh's target was the army and the police and he never harassed Civilians whether a European or a Creole in this 9-month war. It was because of Bureh's gentility that his war has been described as a gentleman's war.

When the Mende joined, the war became violent. The Mende declared a total war and massacred all the Creole missionaries or any Mende who collaborated with the whites was slaughtered. Hundreds of foreigners were killed plus whoever was connected to the free town government. Those who dressed in a European style were also killed. Almost over 1,000 men, women and children were slaughtered and a lot of property destroyed.

The Mende were however not well organised by the Poro-secret religious educational and trading society with headquarters at Bumpe. Once the British destroyed this, the rebellion was suppressed.

More to this, by the end of 1898, Bai Bureh had given himself up. He was taken a prisoner to free town where he was welcomed by the Creoles as a Hero. The uprising was eventually suppressed by a powerful force consisting of the British and West Indian forces. The Temne and Mende had been defeated mainly as a result of military inferiority but not of poor organisation. This followed a period of firm British control over Sierra Leone,

EFFECTS OF THE WAR.

Loss of life: The Mende launched a total war killing anyone linked to the white government. Over 1,000 Creoles, several Europeans, Americans and collaborators were slaughtered in the war. Even people who wore European style of dress were killed. The British forces equally murdered an equivalent number of the Temne and the Mende in the war.

Mistrust of Creoles; The most significant effect of the war was perhaps the reduction in status and influence of the Creoles in the affairs of Sierra Leone and the rest of West Africa. Consequently many of the Creoles were forced out of Civil service and responsible positions in the economy, in the civil service and the church. Thus in 1892 Creoles held 50% of senior civil service posts while in 1917 these percentages had fallen to only 10%. For example governor Cardew laid down a policy that only Englishmen were to administer. The Creole influence was to be kept out such that the Temne and Mende remained uncreolised and therefore unspoilt.

The war ended with a complete subjugation of Sierra Leone and loss of independence. The Anglo-Creole partnership in administration and development of West Africa came to believe that the role of the Creoles as intermediaries was quite unrealistic.

There was also victimisation of African leaders; Bai-Bureh was taken a prisoner only to be released later when he was sick and a weak man. Many African leaders were hanged or dethroned as collaborators got employed without considering their capability to serve.

After the suppression of the rebellion, with much aid from British and West Indian troops, the hut tax that the Temne and Mende had fought to remove was enforced. The defenceless people had now to pay without much resistance.

In all the Creoles lost most more than anybody else. Their death toll was higher than that of any other tribe. In the interior the Temne and Mende considered them as "Black English men". Thus they found themselves at cross roads and lacked a sense of belonging.

African chiefs were respected as the frontier police force became disbanded (dismissed). Many Africans now got a chance to be recruited in the new police force.

The land laws were revised and the hut tax was reduced to favour the Temne and Mende. Thus although the Temne and Mende did not regain their independence, the war restored a lot of their dignity. Their social, political and economic powers could now at least be recognised.

In commerce, the Creoles also lost their monopoly to big British trading firms that worked with the African middlemen to exploit the natural resources of Sierra Leone.

Change of Creole education in the interior: It was the British intention to extinguish the Creole influence not only in Sierra Leone but also in the whole of British West Africa. This had a negative civilisation effect in stagnant interior societies. There were very few schools and even the type of education that was given was quite unprogressive- Thus after the war, Temne and Mende had to be trained purposely for tribal life that would support western civilisation but not Creole developmant.

Because of these conflicts between Creoles and the British in the interior, by 1914 not even a single road had been constructed to connect the interior with Free town.

Emergence of indirect rule: After the war, the reorganisation of the government gave way to indirect rule with Temne and Mende as the main African chiefs. The British appointed its agents to administer them.

This hampered the levels of political, economic and social achievements that Creoles had achieved. The hut tax war generally affected the whole of Sierra Leone and her role as a nursery bed of West African civilisation collapsed.

In conclusion therefore, the hut tax war can be said to have been a result of the British negligence over the economic, political and social interests of the Temne and Mende. The indigenous people had lost their political power that they saw as the abuse to their traditional set up. The course of the war was violent relying on guerilla military tactics and African traditional religion. Its effects were too bitter and far-reaching not so much for the Temne and Mende who participated and lost the war but quite painful to the Creoles who had not even participated in the war.