The Jihads of West Africa were Islamic wars that swept through West Africa during the 19th century between 1801 and 1880. Islam, a religion that was founded by Prophet Mohammed in Mecca, Saudi Arabia was brought to West Africa during the Trans-Saharan trade and reached its apex during the Zenith of the Songhai empire. However, following the collapse of this empire. Islam started to collapse. Hence, the beginning of the 19th century saw the movements for the revival of Islam in West Africa. These movements were mainly led by Fulani scholars and they resulted in the Housaland. Massina and Fouta Djalon.

The 19th Century Africa n history saw a revival of Islam following its collapse with the fall of Mali and Songhai empire at the end of 18th Century.  These refomist movements were led majorly by Fulani scholars whose intention was initially to revive the Islamic doctrine to the original setting i.e return the Sheria law that had degenerated under the Hausa aristocracy which therefore led to a number of religious wars in what came to be the Jihads of West Africa.  Most notably the Sokoto Jihad, Massina Jihad and the Futa Jalon Jihads.

In as much as the Jihads occurred in different regions and at different times with the different personalities they were as a result of common general causes and factors which though initially sound religious had some elements of political, economic and intellectual contents.

Religiously, the Jihads were partly prompted by the desire of the Fulani scholars to establish Islamic morals which had largely degenerated following the collapse of Songhai and Mali empires and the subsequent emergence of pagan rulers (Hausa aristocracy) who begun to mix Islam with elements of paganism characterised by heavy drinking, sexual immorality, lack of respect for the turban and viels which became typical of the Hausa states therefore it’s partly from this state of affairs which existed in most of the states save Bornu where orthodox Islam was still practiced that greatly provoked Islamic scholars to declare war on the Hausa states in what came to be the Jihads of West Africa.

Closely related, many of the Fulani scholars had spread all over West and Central Sudan intermarried with the inhabitants adopted their pagan ways of living thus abandoning their orthodox Islam and this is what annoyed religions fanatics such as Uthman Dan Fodio who realised that by the end of 19th Century Orthodox Islam was being practiced in a few places and therefore there was a need to revive original Islam.  It’s from this basis that Uthman Dan Fodio played a leading role in the 19th Century Jihads hence with the expansionism of Muslim brotherhood notably the Tinjaniyya and Quadriyya brotherhoods in the later 19th Century promoted the desire for religions revival because they called for unity and propagation of true Islam and it’s therefore not surprising that Uthman Dan Fodio egun the 19th Century Jihads which greatly influenced subsequent Jihads in Massina and Futa Jallon.

Politically, the Fulani lived as minorities in various states most of which were under Pagan or lukewarm Muslim rulers whose system was characterised by mal-administration such as oppression, exploitation of the poor, inefficient leadership elements that were regarded as unreligions and therefore wanted to overthrow them and in order to establish Islamic purity.

Furthermore, the Hausa aristocrats exploited the Fulani Muslim by overtaxing them which taxes were lavishly spent by government officials and therefore didn’t improve the conditions of the poor lot which annoyed the Fulani masses who later joined their leaders to declare religious wars.

It’s also argued that the Hausa aristocrats were generally corrupt, they took bribes, exploited the people and unfairly represented the Fulanis in courts because most cases were always judged in favour of the Hausa over lords.

Therefore the governments of the Sudan were characterised by nepotism, despotism, oppression of the poor, harassment of the masses, corruption a combination of which greatly annoyed the Fulani intellectuals who in addition were largely discriminated in terms of education, political privilege, trade which they were determined to achieve.

Economically, the wealthy and influential town Fulani merchants felt that their wealth was insecure because of the jealous of  the Hausa rulers and the peasant population.  It was in this light that the Fulani merchants played an important role in the outbreak of the Jihads.

Socially, the Fulani scholars who had attended Islamic studies in Arabic countries wanted to restore Islamic universal literacy that would be beneficial to the whole of the Islamic society terms of trade, security and political domination.

Intellectually, the elite wanted to bring an intellectual revolution in West Africa i.e a desire to create an ideal Islamic society which was characteristic in the original empires.  It was therefore from the above analysis that various Jihads broke out in West Africa and among these include the Sokoto Jihads led by Uthman Dan Fodio, Massina Jihad led by Seku Ahmed and the Futa Jihad led by Al Hajji Umar.

General decline in Islamic religion; Islamic principles were not even observed by the Muslim converts. Many could smoke, engage in prohibited trade, and sell pork and alcohol. Besides there was stagnation in the spread of Islam especially after the fall of Mali, Songhai and Kanem Bormu. It's believed that apart from the old Moslem families, there were no more new converts to Islamic faith.

Advent of North African Islamic faith; further more, there was a spread of Moslem brotherhoods from North Africa to the West African states. Such brotherhoods like Tijjaniyya and Quadriyya that had bases in North African were received in West Africa. They became a body of Moslem fundamentalists who called for use of force during the spread of Islam. Their encouragement made personalities such as Samoure Toure, Uthman Dan Fodio and Alhaji Umar to organize jihad movements.

In summary, the general causes of the Jihads include among others the emergence of Fulani scholars like Uthman Dan Fodio, the need to purify Islam, to its original position which had degenerated during the rule of the Hausa aristocracy which was characterised by heavy drinking sexual immorality lack of respect for Turbans and viel, mal-administration of Hausa aristocracy among others.

THE SOKOTO JIHAD

The first of these Jihads took place in Hausa land the neighbouring areas.  The Sokoto Jihads led by Fulani scholar and preacher Uthman Dan Fodio born at Marata in Gobir in the year 1754 alongside his brother Abdullahi the two of whom were brought up in a strict Islamic school and it was Dan Fodio’s education at Agades that exposed him to the contemporary Islamic world such that on his return he begun to preach in various places in Hausa land such as Kebbi, Zamfara where he built a large following to the extent that Nafata the king of Gobir was greatly attracted to his preaching and even employed him as a tutor to this sons.

However, following the death of Nafata and the subsequent succession of Yunfa in 1862, jealousy over Uthmans influence begun to grow because of the fear of his radical ideas of reform which Yunfa regarded as dangerous to his reign hence attacks were made on Uthman for he largely opposed the mal-administration of the Hausa aristocracy although later he was weakened migrated outside Gobir to Gudu a movement that occurred on February 21st 1807 and has been referred to as a “Hejira” and was an open declaration of war on non believers.

At Gudu, the reformist Fulani supporters and many of the Hausa common flock (Talokwa) rallied behind him and declared him a commander of the faithful (Sarkin-Musulmi) thus leading the Fulani revolt against Yunfa in Gobir where the latter was decisively defeated and this gave courage and morale to Uthman to make an attack on other states in Hausa land and to build an empire that would make him purify Islam in Hausa states and beyond therefore he gave his most faithful followers (Flag bearers) the flags which symbolised the mandate to lead other Fulani communities and carry on with holy wars in their respective areas such as Nupe, Illorin, Adamawa, Bornus among others.. in which case where the flag bearers succeeded; they were to be made emirs with intent to establish an Orthodox Islamic society and indeed by 1880 the Fulani Jihad had resulted into the complete overthrow of the old Hausa aristocracy and the establishment of the Fulani emirates owing allegiance to Uthman as a caliph whose capital was at Sokoto.

The concern therefore to many scholars is to analyse the extent to which the Sokoto Jihads were religious than political for it’s held in some quarters that political considerations outweighed religions in the minds of the Jihadists for accordingly the 19th Century Jihads are potrayed as a political movement in a guise of religion.

It’s vital to note however that Uthman Dan Fodio the brainchild behind the 19th Century Jihads was prompted by genuine religious motives i.e at the initial stages the Jihadists had religious motives i.e the desire to revive true Islamic practice and to establish an ideal Islamic society in Hausa land.

Later however, religious reformists became more political then religious although its true that Uthman Dan Fodio attacked political and economic evils, he believed that religious reform could only be achieved when the decadent and corrupt Hausa system was overthrown therefore to Uthman, the overthrow of the Hausa political system was a means of achieving a religious end i.e revival of Islam in Hausa land.

However unlike Uthman Dan Fodio, many of his supporters joined these Jihads purely for political motives for example the Hausa Takwara (common flock) regarded these Jihads as a revolt against the oppressive rule of the aristocracy saviour than a religions reform.

Likewise, the cattle Fulani (Bororoge) who were mainly pagans or indifferent muslims joined the Jihads for political motives.  It’s therefore partly form this basis that some scholars have refereed to the Jihads as politically motivated.

In addition, the flag bearers who were commissioned by Uthman Dan Fodio to carry out Jihads in their area thought more of establishing themselves as Emirs than establishing a true Islamic society because even when they took over the political power they begun to tolerate and condoned pagan practices which they were meant to remove.

Furthermore, the greed with which the Fulani leaders carried out for themselves states outside Hausa land such a Kefi Nupe the state of Nasarawa, Lafia Uloria Adamawa showed a gust for political power than religions revival.

The attack on Bornu which was one of the few places in Sudan where Orthodox Islam was still practiced illustrates a political than religions motive.  its no wonder that Al-Kanemi a reformist ruler in Bornu wrote to Mohammed Bello accusing him of seizing political power in the guise of religions revolt.

In all therefore, in as much as Uthman Dan Fodio’s intentions had been religions, they were later on out weighed by the political opportunism of the flag bearers as Trimingham in his book “A History of Islam in West Africa” confirms

“Uthman retired from public life because his motive of conquest for Islamic reform was thwarted by politically ambitious flag bearers.... which made it impossible for him to establish a truly Islamic administration”.

In conclusion, in light of the above argument, one is right to agree that the Jihads which begun as a movement for religions reform later degenerated into a quest for political control thus though it’s true that political considerations later out weighed genuinely religious ones and shouldn’t be ignored.

EFFECTS OF SOKOTO JIHAD

The Sokoto Jihads had far reaching consequence in the history of the 19th Century West Africa some of which were that the Jihads led to the establishment of the Fulani Muslim empires stretching from the Niger region up to lake Chad for example the Mandika empire under Samouri Toure, Tokolor empire, Fulani emirates among others.. This Islamic society began to be ruled by the Emirs who owed allegiance to Uthman Dan Fodio as a caliph.  This therefore brought some degree of unity all as a result of the Islamic Jihads. This empire was divided into two i.e the Eastern sector with its capital at Sokoto under the administration of Uthman’s Son Muhammed Bello and his brother Abdullahi took charge of the Western sector with his headquarters at Gwadir.

With the conquest of the Hausa states, the government of these states passed from the hands of the Hausa aristocracy to the Fulani aristocracy although the  Hausa system of administration was retained, it was Islamised by enforcing the Islamic law which continued until the time of British occupation and was actually used in carrying out indirect rule in Northern Nigeria and British West Africa.

The religious movements spread beyond the frontiers of Hausa states as far as Adamawa, southern Nupe, Illorin, Oyo, Bornu among others.. and in same period, there were Jihads in other areas of West Africa which that had been inspired by the Sokoto Jihad notably the Massina Jihad led by Seku-Ahmed and the Futa-Jallon Jihad led the Al-Hajj Umar.

THE MASSINA JIHAD

The second of these Jihads took place in Massina whose conditions were not different from those that existed in Hausa land for example by the beginning to the 19th Century, the muslim Fulani and the Soninke lived side by side with the pagan Bambara and Bozo and some of the pagan pastoral Fulani.  In the same way, the leadership of Massina under Dijalo was purely irreligious for it believed that he wasn’t a serious Muslim and he therefore relied on the influence of the pagan subjects.

Furthermore, the system of leadership like that of the Hausa aristocracy was characterised by exploitation , inefficient leadership, oppression of the masses all of which were regarded as non-Islamic practices.  It was therefore this un-religious state of affairs which provoked the reformist zeal of a Fulani scholar Seku-Ahmed to lead a Jihad in the state of Massina and with the support of a few Muslim Fulani, Dijalo was defeated and his attempt to enlist support of the Bambara ruler of Segu which was regarded as a vassal state were in vain.  This therefore did witness the overthrow of the Diallo dynasty and Ahmed established a new state with it’s capital at Hamdallahi such that by the time of his death in 1874, he had built up an empire which embraced the whole region of the Niger between Jenne and Timbuktu.

In as much as the conditions in Hausa land and Massina were similar, it’s vital to note that the Massina Jihads no doubt had a Sokoto influence because Seku-Ahmed the brain child behind the Massina Jihads had been in Hausa land in 1805 at the time Uthman Dan Fodio was beginning his Jihad and therefore he can rightly argue that Seku-Ahmed was inspired by the Sokoto Jihad to prepare for his own.

Thus on his return, he settled in Sebera and taught there he collected a gathering who were later to became his disciples just as Dan Fodio had done at Degel.

Before he launched his Jihad, Ahmed sent for and received a flag of authority and letters of investiture proclaiming a Jihad in Massina and these were given by Uthman Dan Fodio as a symbol of authority and support.

Likewise, the empire Seku-Ahmed established in system was similar in many respects to that of Uthman Dan Fodio in Hausa land because he also divided the empire into provinces or Emirates and also appointed Emirs to take control.

However, unlike Uthman Dan Fodio, Ahmed established a highly centralised theocracy in Massina with all the executives legislature and judicial powers vested in the council of the learned men who had proper knowledge of Islamic law.

JIHADS IN FUTA JALLON

Like the Massina Jihads, those in Futa Jallon were caused by similar circumstances because it was the Islamic standard of the region that forced Al-Hajj Umar a Tukolor Muslim scholar to lead a revolt against the unreligious practices in his homeland.

Al-Hajj Umar was born in 1794 in Futa-Toro, made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1820 from where he was initiated into the Tijjaniyya brotherhood and it was during his way home that he spent some time at Sokoto with Muhammed Bello the son of Dan Fodio who was married to one of his daughters and therefore it’s not surprising that his Jihad was largely inspired by the experience of the Fulani Jihad in Hausa land.  This can rightly be evident from the fact that Al-Hajj Jihad exhibited many characteristics of Uthman Dan Fodio Jihad.

It was in 1838 that Umar returned and settled in Futa Jallon where followers flocked to him for his teaching and he organised them into an army equipped them with fire arms which had been purchased from the European traders at the coast which caused alarm among rulers who began to fear his power and just like Uthman Dan Fodio, Al-Hajji Umar performed a traditional Hejjira by migrating to Dinguary followed by his discipline and in 1862 he received a call to “Sweep the country and proclaim a Jihad in what came to be the Futa Jallon Jihad whereby all the states of Karta, Segu and Messina were proclaimed as Muslim empires and were divided into emirates just as Uthman Dan Fodio had done in Hausaland.

However in 1867, Al-Hajji Umar was killed as he attempted to suppress a revolt in Segu however before his death he had nominated his son Ahmed as a successor although he lacked organisational abilities and indeed his empire was short lived for in the last quarter of 19th Century it witnessed the advance of French imperialism.

EFFECTS OF JIHADS.

1.        There was loss of life and property because the Jihad were carried out in a military manner, during the Islamic crusade, so many people were killed and a lot of property lost. It is said that whoever refused to be circumcised would instead be beheaded.

2.        Related to the above, there was famine in west Africa, the Jihad did not just take one day or a year, but they took a long period of time. However during the jihad no attention was paid to agriculture because people became more occupied with defence and security like- wise crops and food stores were all burnt. The result of all these was massive famine.

3.        Larger political units were established. For example, Sokoto caliphate by Uthman Dan Fodio. Tukolor Empire by Alhaji Umar, Maccina kingdom by Ahmed and Mandika kingdom by Samoure Toure. The jihad movement flag bearers also established Emirates such as Adamawa, Illorin and Baunch.

Important to note is that, some of the states that were created had well-organized administrative structures which later colonialists utilized and inherited. For example Lugard exploited the Sokot structure to entrench indirect rule system in Nigeria. Therefore jihad movements were not only a means through which the ancient glories of Ghana, Mali and Songhai were revived but also powerful nation building was witnessed.

4.        A new system of administration was established in West Africa. The new system was based on the Islamic code and by Muslim administrators. The Fulani who were foreign and migrant subjects became the masters since they were the ones knowledgeable in Islamic law. Nevertheless such laws were not fully recognized by nominal Muslims and non-Moslems. It comprised a lot of unfairness to them.

5.        Creation of Judicial adjustment; before jihad movements broke out. West Africa was administered according to traditional law that was not only out of date but could also sometimes lead to confusion. After the triumph of jihad, organized-Islamic law replaced the judicial confusion that was evident in much of west Africa i.e. Law and order replaced the past anarchy and civil strife.

6.        Inspite of the short-term disaster caused, the Jihads in West Africa in the "long run led to the establishment of peace and stability which increased commercial, economic and agricultural activity in much of West Africa. It is important to note that Commerce came to be dominated by the Fulani and booming Slave trade was subjected to non-believers who suffered from constant raids until the advent of colonialists.

7.        Improved management of economic affairs. The past unfair and un-koranic taxes were abolished alongside the corrupt officials and their corrupt system that for long had been a center of grievances in West Africa. The new era brought in a period of social harmony as economic management replaced gross economic mismanagement. Doubt is held whether these non Muslims appreciated such changes.

8.        Creation of disunity among the west Africans. Some people were divided along the different brotherhoods such as the Quadriyya and Tijjaniyya mainly it was because of these Islamic sects that Bornu and Sokoto Muslims remained irreconcilable although, they were both Moslem states.

One of the factors for disagreement was that, while the Tijjaniyya believed more in education and scholarship as the ideal means of effecting an Islamic revolution, the Quadriyya put emphasis on the use of force. Another line of disunity was along being Muslim and non-Muslim. With all these differences, jihad states proved hostile and this is why with the advent of colonialists, states like Bambara and Yoruba states collaborated with colonialists.

9.        Islam acted as a unifying factor in some states. People who embarked on Islamic faith got united and were even strong enough to resist colonialism. States in west Africa that had been swept by Islamic reform resisted European rule in order to maintain their independence and also preserve their states from the rule of infidels. That's why men like Samoure Toure were able to unite the Mandika Empire against the French invaders. Secondly, West Africans viewed Europeans as "Spirits" and this negatively affected the spread of Christianity in the region.

10.   Many people were converted to Islam in west Africa; while the faith of nominal Muslims was strengthened, many pagan traditionalists were "Strongly" got converted to Islam. Consequently, mosques replaced traditional shrines and Moslem teachers took the place of traditional religious leaders. More so, loyalty to ethnic groups was replaced by loyalty to Moslem brotherhoods such as Quadriyya in Sokoto and Tijjaniyya in Bornu and Tokolor.

In some places however, conversations never gained a strong ground. For example, in Tukolor, conversions were achieved at the point of a sword was with drawn, there was equally large scale reversions to traditional beliefs more so among the Saharan people.

11.   Intellectual revolutions; The jihad movements also stimulated an intellectual revolution that led to remarkable developments in education in attempting to justify their attacks/reforms on the nominal and non Muslims, jihadists like Uthman Dan Fodio, Ahmed Bello and Alhaji Umar began writing books. Many works of Islamic literature were published. The products of these jihadists schools became a powerful force against colonialism.

12.   Disruption of trade businesses; Before they started, there was a profitable trade known as the Trans-Atlantic ocean trade with outsiders by the Africans in return for manufactured goods from Europe. Tins trade could not go on during the jihads because of security risks.

13.   Jihads made missionaries to appeal for protection from home. The jihads encouraged the colonization of West Africa indirectly. Jihadists were a threat to Christianity due to this, missionary groups in west Africa had to request for protection from their home government. This protection could only come 'n the name of West African colonization.

REASONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF JIHADS.

A number of reasons have worked jointly to explain why the jihad movements in West Africa were successful and these include;

1.        Disunity among nominal and non-Islamic states in West Africa; there was mutual jealousy and suspicion among the West African states. The Hausa states were particularly disunited which provided the Fulani with an opportunity to attack and defeat each one of them individually. Besides this, pagans were able to unite and challenge the fanatic Muslims.

2.        Jihad movements in the 191 century West Africa also enjoyed good leadership. Such leaders included Uthman Dan Fodio, Ahmed Bello and Samoure Toure. Jihad movements were not only powerful but also determined people at their centres, strove to achieve their targets in the name of fait. They fought courageously to the point of outmarching the old rulers in West Africa.

3.        Led by elites; The jihad movements were also led by educated people who had very convincing rhetory that won them big numbers of dedicated followers. With educated leaders and advantages of unity that Islam converted among the jihadists in addition to the possession of fire arms, victory had to be on the side of jihadists.

4.        Hope to gain economic achievements; socially, politically and economically, poverty in West Africa also made the non Muslims such as those of Hausa state to support the jihads. Through this confusion, some supporters hoped to raid and loot,

5.        Influence of old aristocracy malpractice; Another facilitating factor for the successes of the jihads was the conservatism and malpractice of old rulers in West Africa, which irritated the population. Had the old aristocracy made liberal reforms on say taxation and promised to rule like devoted Muslims, the jihad holy wars would have been averted.

6.        The success of previous jihads; It was agreed that the latter jihads such as that of Samoure Toure and Maba Dia-Khouba derive their courage from the success of the previous jihads such as that ofUthman Dan Fodio and Umar.

7.        Presence of Fulani population almost in every part of west Africa; the wide dispersal of the Fulani in West Africa, the elite group committed to erase pagan regimes in West Africa was another reason for their success, the incumbent rulers had to deal not with foreign invaders but with organized strategic groups of Fulani in West Africa.

WHY THE ARABS HAD LITTLE INTEREST IN THE INTERIOR OF EAST AFRICA UP 1840

·      The Arabs who in the mid 19^th century had taken active role in the social and economic affairs of East Africa had before 1840 showed less interest in the interior due to the following reasons:

·      The demand for ivory and slaves was low.

·      Limited knowledge of the interior.

·      There were hostile tribes and dangerous wild animals.

·      There was fear of dangerous disease.

·      Lack of developed transport and communication in the interior of East Africa.

·      There was a problem of language barrier.

·      There were nuclear trade routes in the interior.

·      There were high operation costs and therefore low profit margin.

Why Arabs became more interested in the East African interior between 1840 and 1885

·      Between the period of 1840 and 1885, Arabs became much interested in the interior. This was caused by the following factors.

·      Increased demand for slaves and ivory.

·      The Arrival of Seyyid Said played a very important role.

·      Arabs were very rich and strong at that timer.

·      There was knowledge of the interior at that time.

·      There was need to eliminate African middlemen.

·      They were welcomed and cared for by chiefs.

·      There was need to spread islam.

·      Clove farms demanded slave labour and therefore they had to get them from the interior.

·      Introduction of Quinine reduced malaria which many foreigners had feared in the interior.

·      Why did Islam have little impact in the interior of E. Africa up 1900?

·      Although islam had been in the interior of East Africa since 1840, it did not make a strong impact due to the following factors;

·      Arabs had more interest in trade than religion.

·      They were associated with slave trade.

·      Islamic norms like fasting and circumcision made people to fear that religion.

·      Some Arabs were poor and lacked gifts to give the people in order convince them.

·      There were strong African beliefs and religions.

·      The Arabs were also arrogant and lacked good tactics of winning the hearts of people.

·      Christianity was becoming influential.

·      Given the above factors, it was not until the late 19^th century when factors changed in favour of islam, in the period before 1900, it had remained a brief case religion.

Why did Islam succeed after the 19^th     century?

·      Similarity between Islam and African religions for example circumcision and polygamy.

·      There were also conflicts between Christians especially Catholics and Protestants like those in Buganda. Some people resorted to islam for peace.

·      Christians’ involvement in politics made the islam religion more influential.

·      Arabs had more interest in trade, were rich and more appealing to the common people.

·      Asian traders who were Moslems promoted islam.

·      There were new duties for moslems like slaughtering animals which were appealing to the local people who wanted more meat.

·      The promotion of polygamy.