The Masai belong to plain Nilotes. They are an indigenous African ethnic group of semi-nomadic people located in Kenya and northern Tanzania. Due to their distinctive customs and dress and residence near the many game parks of East Africa, they are among the most well-known African ethnic groups internationally. They speak Maa, a Nilo-Saharan language related to Dinka, Nuer, Turkana and Songhai, and are also educated in the official languages of Kenya and Tanzania: Swahili and English. The Masai population has been variously estimated as 377,089 from the 1989 Census or as 453,000 language speakers in Kenya in 1994 and 430,000 in Tanzania in 1993 with a total estimated as "approaching 900,000" Estimates of the respective Masai populations in both countries are complicated by the remote locations of many villages, and their semi-nomadic nature.

Although the Tanzanian and Kenyan governments have instituted programs to encourage the Masai to abandon their traditional semi-nomadic lifestyle, the people have clung to their age-old customs.

Origin

According to Masai oral history, they originated from the lower Nile valley north of Lake Turkana (southern Sudan) and began migrating south around the fifteenth century, arriving in a long trunk of land stretching from northern Kenya to central Tanzania between the seventeenth and late eighteenth century. Other ethnic groups were forcibly displaced as they settled in a long trunk of land stretching from northern Kenya to central Tanzania.

The Masai territory reached its largest size in the mid-nineteenth century, and covered almost all of the Great Rift Valley and adjacent lands from Mount Marsabit in the north to Dodoma in the south. At this time the Masai, as well as the larger group they were part of, raided cattle as far east as the Tanga coast in Tanzania.

Raiders used spears and shields, but were most feared for throwing clubs (orinka) which could thrown accurately up to 70 paces.

In 1852 there was a report of a concentration of 800 Masai warriors on the move in Kenya. In 1857, after having depopulated the “Wakuafi wilderness” in southeastern Kenya, Masai warriors threatened Mombasa on the coast of Kenya.

Because of this migration, the Masai are the southernmost Nilotic speakers.

Essentially there are twelve geographic sectors of the tribe, each one having its own customs, appearance, leadership and even dialects. These subdivisions are known as the: Keekonyokie, Damat, Purko, Wuasinkishu, Siria, Laitayiok, Loitai, Kisonko, Matapato, Dalalekutuk, Loodokolani and Kaputiei.

Social organisation.

Camped in shelters made of reeds, mud and grass forming settlements called Manyatta. Each settlement comprised of people of the same clan. Each clan had its own name and cattle brand. Each clan was under guidance of a religious leader called Laibon.

They practised circumcision as a form of initiation into manhood or womanhood. A number of boys or girls circumcised together formed an age grade. The head of each age set was the Olauguannani who planned raids and later distributed proceeds of his age set.

Men disliked clothing  - women wore robe like skin and decorative ornaments and beads around arms and legs. Practised division of labour according to craft and sex. Black – smiths lived separately and were considered inferior.  Girls for domestic work, boys for herding and war operations.

The Masai believed in a Supreme Being Enkai – the source of life and death. Revered departed ancestors, the Laibon offered sacrifices to the dead in times of trouble.

The central unit of Masai society is the age-set. Although young boys are sent out with the calves and lambs as soon as they can toddle, childhood for boys is mostly playtime. Girls are responsible for chores such as cooking and milking. Every 15 years or so, a new and individually named generation of Morans or Il-murran (warriors) will be initiated. This involves most boys between 12 and 25, who have reached puberty and are not part of the previous age-set. One rite of passage from boyhood to the status of junior warrior is a painful circumcision ceremony, which is performed without anaesthetic. The Maa word for circumcision is emorata.

The boy must endure the operation in silence. Expressions of pain bring dishonor, albeit temporarily. The healing process will take 3-4 months, and boys must remain in black cloths for a period of 4-8 months.

During this period, the newly circumcised young men will live in a "manyatta", a "village" built by their mothers. The manyatta has no protective encircling barricade for protection, emphasizing the warrior role of protecting the community. No inner krall is built, since warriors neither own cattle or undertake stock duties. Further rites of passage are required before achieving the status of senior warrior, culminating in the eunoto ceremony, the "coming of age".

When a new generation of warriors is initiated, the existing ilmoran will graduate to become junior elders, who are responsible for political decisions until they in turn become senior elders.

Warriors are in charge of society's security, and spend most of their time now on walkabouts throughout Masailand, beyond the confines of their sectional boundaries. They are also much more involved in cattle trading than they used to be, developing and improving basic stock through trades and bartering rather than stealing as in the past.

Boys are responsible for herding small livestock. During the drought season, both warriors and boys assume responsibility for herding livestock. Elders are directors and advisors for day-to-day activities. Women are responsible for making the houses as well as supplying water, collecting firewood, milking cattle and cooking for the family.

Political organisation.

Masai's society is strongly patriarchical in nature with elder men, sometimes joined by retired elders, deciding most major matters for each Masai group. A full body of oral law covers many aspects of behaviour. Formal Execution is unknown, and normally payment of in cattle will settle matters. An out of court process called 'amitu', 'to make peace', or 'arop', which involves a substantial apology, is also practiced.

Politically, they were organised on clan basis.  Each clan organised for both offence and defence. A council of clan elders formed a legislative authority and also handled cases of criminal nature. Judge according to the established norms or public moral conduct.

Masai raided nearby Bantu communities for cattle, foodstuffs and women.

The Masai are a confrontational society ie. are aggressive and warlike. Had a series of civil wars that weakened their social and political organisation.

Economic organisation.

Each village settlement was an economic unit that is had its own territory, pastures ground and water wells. Land was held in common by the inhabitants.

Basically pastoralists.  Regarded cattle as the most valuable possession, it provided meat, milk, butter, ghee, blood as porridge sauce, hides as clothing and bedding, cow dung for plastering walls.

Some sections practised agriculture that is the Kwavi grew cereals, tobacco, legumes and vegetables.

Hunting and gathering as important activities that is as source of game, meat, hides, fruits, honey and roots as medicine.

Craft industry – Black smiths made spears, arrows, swords ornaments and shields. Trade  - usually conducted by women.  Bartered cattle products, and beads for cereals, tobacco and vegetables with Kikuyu, Kamba and Kisii.

Relationship between the Masai and the Kikuyu during the 19th century

At first the Masai raided the Kikuyu for livestock, later the Kikuyu adopted Masai Military styles and repulsed them.

There were some intermarriage between the Masai and the Kikuyu this helped to reduce the tension between the two neighbouring communities.

There was trade between the Masai and the Kikuyu that benefited both communities.  The Kikuyu sold ochre, honey, pots, yams, tobacco, cereals and other foodstuffs to the Masai.

In exchange the Masai offered hides, barter, livestock, beads, salt, cowrie shells and implements.

The Masai controlled some trade routes and Kikuyu traders who passed through their territory (markets paid some taxes).

Both the Masai were basically pastoralists later they copied crop-farming methods from the Kikuyu. Both the Masai and Kikuyu practised circumcision and age sets system.

The Kikuyu who were crop farmers later copied cattle keeping skills from the Masai, they also acquired iron working skills from the Masai.

Reasons for the decline of Masai power and influence during the 19th century

Civil wars: Frequent wars between the Purko and Kwavi weakened the Masai these wars were fought over cattle and grazing fields.

Diseases: Epidemics such as pneumonia, Rinder pest and small pox attacked families and livestock claiming tolls of human life and cattle.

Locust Attack: The locust invasion destroyed all green vegetation including grass which was essential for their livestock.

Drought: Natural disasters such as drought led to famine due to scarcity of food water and grass for livestock.   Many Masai perished of starvation and malnutrition.

Hostile neighbours: Attacks for cattle and grazing fields from the Nandi, Akamba and Kikuyu further weakened the Masai.

Another blow to the Masai came from the British who established colonial rule in their territory during the 19^th Century, grabbing part of Masai land and forcing them into reserves.

The Kwavi (agricultural Masai)

The Kwavi include the Samburu, Laikipia, Kinapop, Uasin Gishu, Lasegelai and Kapenabisi. They were more aggressive, and forceful than the pastoral Masai (Purko).

The pastoral and agricultural Masai speak a related language and practice the same customs. Both did not have administrative control over the area where they grazed their animals.

By 1700, they moved southwards into the area conquered by the Kalenjin culture and took over control of their society and political system.

By 1800, the Masai were the most powerful people on the plains of central Kenya and north - central Tanzania.

The most prominent features of the Masai in the 19th Century were the raids and civil wars. They raided in order to protect their cattle, A successful cattle raid was a sign of social success and prestige.

Civil wars in the 19th century

The wars began around 1815 on the Uasin  Gishu plateau. This may have been a result of shortage of grazing areas.

In the 1840s, more fighting when the Kusan of Laikipia, supported by the Masai living south of Lake Naivasha, fought and defeated .the Uasin Gishu Kwavi.

The Kwavi re-organised and helped by the Siria attacked the Purko, driving them out of the Rift Valley.

The Purko and their allies counter attacked and the Kwavi suffered a permanent and disastrous defeat.

Between 1870 and 1875, the Laikipia Kwavi were defeated by their former allies, the Purko, and their neighbours.

Results of Masai civil wars

The wars weakened the Kwavi as a powerful military community.

The Kwavi and Purko Masai also experienced natural disasters which allowed agriculturalists such as Kikuyu, Akamba and Kalenjin to counter-attack them.

The locust invasion on pasture, attack of plauro-pneumonia among their cattle, outbreak of small pox further destroyed their cattle herds. The Kwavi therefore experienced acute starvation and with more attack from Purko Masai, they were forced into agriculture.

The Masai population decreased and large areas of Masai land were deserted and the Masai stopped living on the Laikipia plateau and the district east of Kilimanjaro.

Civil wars among the pastoral Masai continued.

The local Laibons became section leaders in addition to directing wars and being ritual leaders.  The greatest Laibon was called Supet succeeded by Mbatian. Mbatian led the Purko section to victory and by 1884, it was the most prestigious section of all. By 1890, Mbatian had no rival among the pastoral Masai.

After his death, there was a succession war between his sons, Sendeyo and Lenana. Sendeyo and his followers occupied the country Loita in the present day Tanzania. Lenana and his followers lived across the border in the present day Kenya. As the power of the Kwavi and Purko Masai declined, that of the Nandi increased.