Introduction

After the partition of East Africa in 1886, both Britain and Germany decided to rule their respective territories through trading companies to reduce the cost of administration. Through the influence of Carl Peters, the German East Africa Company was formed to take care of the German area.

By 1887 the company had set up ten centres on the immediate hinterland where there were plantations of coffee and cotton.  These centres also served as trading stations. 

But they soon proved a failure owing principally to the opposition from Arabs who saw all Europeans as a danger to their trade in slaves and ivory and to their political control. 

Europeans would no longer allow the trade in slaves which was still the main source of Arab livelihood.

The company tried to trade in local produce such as ivory, gum copal and a few other items.  But it met with the formidable competition of the already established Indian firms of Sewa Hadji and of Charles Stokes, an Irish merchant who had formerly been a missionary. 

To get revenue, Carl Peters persuaded the Sultan of Zanzibar, Said Khalifa, successor to Sultan Said Bargash who had died in 1884, to allow the company  collect customs duties on the coast. 

 

It was also to regulate commerce and to improve communication in all coastal towns. 

 

This was greatly resented by the Arabs who realised that their political influence and their commercial traffic in slaves and ivory were threatened. 

Already the British and the Germans were waging a campaign against the slave trade and it had become very difficult to sell slaves in Zanzibar and in many coastal towns.

To resist the Europeans who were hovering to damage their political power and commercial supremacy, the Arabs on the coast raised a revolt in 1888, led by an Arab half - caste called Abushiri in Pangani.

Abushiri had always refused to recognise the Sultan of Zanzibar.  He was readily joined by an African leader of Swahili origin, Bwana Heri, chief of the Zigua who also refused to recognise the Sultan.  He therefore resented being handed over to the German rule by the Sultan.

Supported by some Africans, the Arabs drove out all the Germans from the coastal areas except Dar es Salaam and Bagamoyo.

Since the revolt was aimed at both Germans and British, the two European powers joined forces to crush it and it was done. 

The British aided the Germans by their naval patrol which was in the Indian Ocean trying to stop the Arabs from shipping slaves from East Africa across the Indian Ocean. 

The German government sent on Captain Herman Wissman with a small number of troops.  In 1889 he began to organise the German forces consisting of Sudanese soldiers, some Zulus from Portuguese  Mozambique and a large number of Tanganyika askaris.  He then set out to crush the revolt systematically.

Since the rebels were not well co-ordinated, faced with such formidable opposition, Abushiri fled from Pangani and went into the interior after his forces were defeated on the coast.

Wissman set up a post at Mpwapwa and the insurgents lost heart.  Abushiri was betrayed by the local people out in the bush and captured by the German forces who hanged him publicly as an example to other rebels near Pangani river. 

Bwana Heri did not fare any better.  Bearing in mind that all was lost, he surrendered to the Germans and was pardoned.  By early 1891, all the insubordinate spirits were crushed.

The German Government Steps in.

By 1891, the German government realised that a trading company was not equal to the task of administering a colony.  It had little money to run the administration and its forces were too small to crush any opposition.  Moreover its main interest was bound to lie on trading and making profits. 

So the German government took over the administration of Tanganyika and left the company to concentrate on commercial activities after compensation.  The government appointed Julius Von Soden as the first governor. 

Wissman, who had done much to crush the Arab revolt, was not appointed to a senior post on the grounds that he had not shown sufficient ability to organise the colony's finances which by 1891 were in a chaotic state. 

But he was given the task of organising a system of steamers on Lakes Tanganyika, Malawi and Victoria which he did with some success.

The governor, the head of the administration, had power to issue the local decrees. One such decree that greatly affected the Africans was the African Hut tax, passed in 1897 to help increase the country's revenue. This arrangement was not successful because most people had no cash. Other people paid in commodity form.

Agriculture was introduced and Africans were encouraged to grow cotton. There were new programmes developed to raise revenue for the government.

How German Rule Was Established in East Africa

By 1914, the Germans had effectively established their rule in Tanganyika as colonial masters.  They attempted to rule by Direct means.

German direct rule was established through direct military conquest. There were various groups of resistors to German colonialism in Tanganyika for example Abushiri rebellion of 1888-1889, the Mkwawa resistance of the 1890's resistance, Ngono, up rising and later Maji-Maji rebellion.  All these were defeated by military force.

Secondly, German rule was established through treaty signing. This was another method used by the Germans.  Carl peters was their main representative in security treaties.  For example he signed treaties with the Usagara, Usigua, Usambara, and people along the Rufigi river.  These treaties were used later by the German government to claim colonisation of these territories.

Thirdly it was established through African collaborators. These were also used to extend general rule in Tanganyika for example chief Merere of Usangu was used against chief Sina of Kidesa.  The Arabs in Unyanyembe were used against chief Isike.

Fourthly, it was established by use of force or direct intimidation. This was another method used for example in some parts of Tanganyika, resistors were beaten up into obedience or others were captured or hanged or the Germans could cut off their heads for example even after Mkwawa had hanged himself his head was cut off and sent to Berlin. This was used as away of scaring off others from doing the same.

Fifthly, German rule was established through use of Christian missionaries. Links were established by African Chiefs by the Christian missionaries.  They built stations which acted as bases for later colonialists missionaries also bribed and persuaded chiefs to sign treaties with colonial powers.  Hence most Africans converts collaborated with colonial powers.

Furthermore, the Germans used diplomacy and trickery to establish their direct rule. For example diplomatic alliances were entered with the coastal Swahili and Arabs against Africans tribes of the interior for example the Akidas and Jumbes.  These later turned out to be effective agents in the spread of colonial rule.

German rule was also established through use of eexplorers. These were used mainly in the initial stages.  They mapped the interior of Tanganyika, gave reports about economically rich areas of the interior, they reported on the evils of slave trade and established working relation ships with most chiefs of the interior.

Trading companies such as the German Witu Company and the G.E.A co. of Karl Peters financed initial administration, signed treaties with chiefs in Kilimanjaro region, built working stations and also provided security.

It was also done through Communication network establishment. The Germans developed communications network to strengthen their rule in the interior.  In 1891, they built a railway line to link Tanganyika with the interior.  In 1904, another line started in Dar-es-salaam to Kigoma by 1914.

German direct administration in Tanganyika

The Germans devised a system referred to as direct rule after conquering most parts of Tanganyika.  In most cases, they replaced the existing traditional rulers with new chiefs. The German system of administration was aimed at the following:

To achieve the above, the Germans like the British, divided the country into administrative units such as provinces and districts, then lower units.

The Germans in their administration divided the colony into about 20 districts.  Each district under a district officer.  Each district officer was given a police force and a group of African soldiers.

At the top of the administrative hierarchy was a government imperial governor. Under him were provincial district commissioners who were also Germans. Provincial commissioners were also referred to as Resident Representatives.

The Germans ruled through military officers and established military units in such areas.  The use of military officers is what partly made German colonialism brutal and unpopular than that of the British.  This method was however used in areas where resistance was common.

Local African allies were used by the Germans in some parts.  Coastal Arabs and Swahili were also used.  They used Akidas to rule their territories.  However, they were foreigners in those areas where they worked.  And since they had policies imposed from above and harsh to the people, they were generally too unpopular.

In some parts, the Germans imposed puppet chiefs who would always act according to the wishes of the Germans for example in Usambara after death of chief Semboja and in Unyanyembe after death of chief Iseki.

Nature of Germany Administration

Like the British the Germans divided the country into administrative units, that is provinces and districts, then lower units.

At the top of the administrative hierarchy was a Germany Imperial Governor.  Under him were provincial and District commissioners who were also Germans.  Provincial commissioners were often referred to as Resident Representatives.

Lower levels were administered by Akidas and Jumbes who were German Representative.  Akidas and Jumbes replaced African chiefs.

Akidas and Jumbes performed judicial and executive duties and were also in charge of tax collection.

Germans used direct rule that is Africans had no say or powers in the administration and the social economic set up.

Indirect rule was also used on the areas of Rwanda, Burundi, and Bukoba, where native chiefs (Africans) were used to rule on behalf of the Germans.

New cash crops were introduced and the Africans were forced to grow cotton.

Germans introduced taxation and used brutal means of collection.  Brutality and arrogance used by the Germans isolated them from the Africans.

Germans interfered with the traditional ways of the Africans for example German soldiers forcefully took African women even if their husbands were there.

Germans established administrative centres, built roads, railways, harbours among others to effect their colonial rule on East Africa

EFFECTS OF GERMAN RULE:

Germans tried to stop slave trade which was a successful mission much as Africans resisted it.

Germans educated some Africans thus creating a class of African Elites.

They encouraged European settlers to come and establish large-scale plantations.

Tried to spread Christianity, mission centres were set up and missionaries encouraged spreading the gospel.

Led to collapse of some African traditions and customs for example the throwing of twins.

Interfered with the African social ways for example German soldiers took African women.

Built schools, hospitals, and other social institutions.

Public flogging and corporal punishments were considered disrespectful to African men.

Encouraged the use of Swahili as a official language.

Political effects.

Administrative centres, forts, and military installations were constructed.

African kingdoms and empires lost their sovereignty.

African chiefs were replaced by Jumbes and Akidas who were German Representatives.

German administration was brutal and repressive .  This gave a rise to a series of rebellions.

Led to the birth of the spirit of nationalism and demand for independence for example Maji Maji.

Economic effects

Cash crops such as cotton, coffee and sisal were introduced.

Introduced taxation which replaced paying of tributes.

African land was taken by European settlers who initiated plantation agriculture.

Towns and trading centres were developed.

Trade with Europe and other countries increased.  Roads railways were built to promote trade.

Tanganyika became a producer of raw materials for Germany factories.

How the people of Tanganyika reacted to Germany rule.

Some African societies in Tanganyika collaborated with the Germans while most of them resisted German colonialism. The African societies of Rwanda -Urundi and Bukoba areas collaborated with the Germans.

While other societies were silent and did not resist German oppressive and harsh rule, there were numerous uprisings against the Germans in Tanganyika.

The first revolt against the Germans was the Abushiri Revolt (1888-1889). This coastal uprising was as a result of harsh company rule and because the coastal Arabs had been denied rights to collect taxes.

The Hehe under their leader Mkwawa took on armed resistance from 1891- 1894 when the Germans stormed Mkwawa's capital and the Hehe were defeated. Though defeated, Mkwawa took on guerrilla warfare until 1898, when he committed suicide out of anguish. His head was cut off and sent to Germany to show the bosses in Germany what happens to resistors in Africa. It was also a form of accountability.

In 1892, the Nyamwezi under chief Siki attacked caravans and raided the Germans.  The Germans fought back and defeated the Nyamwezi.

The Chagga of Moshi killed a German commander in 1892 and their Chief Mandera was later captured and hanged by the Germans.

The Gogo and the Yao of southern Tanzania took a bitter war with the Germans. However, they were defeated by the military superiority of the Germans. The last resistance against German rule was the Maji Maji uprising of 1905- 1907.  But as in the above course, the Africans were disastrously defeated.

ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN ZANZIBAR

In 1890, a British Protectorate was established over Zanzibar although Sultan Ali Bin Said may not have understood what the treaty of protection meant. Initially, the British did not alter the basic political and social patterns that had been established prior to the colonial rule. The Arabs dominated administration and land ownership.

The Asian population of Zanzibar and Pemba dominated trade and commerce whole Africans were workers on plantations and in towns.

The British saw Zanzibar as primarily an Arab settlement although they were fewer in number.  The British didn't have the desire to change the prevailing social patterns and instead reinforced it by 1926 Legislative and Executive Councils that were established.

Segregation by racial groups was not confined to the political structure.  In education, for example, there were separate schools for Arabs, for Asians, economic activities were different e.g. Commerce, and for Africans, industrial training.

The Sultan was supervised by the British Consul General: however, the Sultan controlled the law courts.  In 1902, when Ali Bin Hamed became sultan, he was too young and the British appointed a regent A.S. Rogers then reduced the Sultan's power.

The president was placed under the authority of the Governor of British East Africa.  This threatened Sultan Khalifa who complained to the colonial office.  He didn't want the islands to be merged with the mainland.  As a result, a Protectorate Council with the sultan as President was formed.  This gave him a little authority on the government of the islands.

In 1911, Swahili replaced Arabic in government schools. Arab families were no longer regarded as important in government.

ZANZIBAR 1920 - 1945.

In 1925, the British Resident in Zanzibar was given full authority under the colonial office in London.  In 1920, the Legislative and Executive councils replaced members with 8 unofficials made up of Africans, Arabs, and Indians. The Executive Council consisted of the Sultan and his advisors.

Economy of Zanzibar

It was based on cloves.  Zanzibar had monopoly of clove production throughout the world and was not badly affected by the depression.  The price fell in 1928 but was up again in 1937.

Arab clove estates were bought by Indians and the Africans started growing it also. In 1927, the Clove Growers Association (CGA) was formed to protect the farmers by controlling prices and wages.

In 1933, the C.G.A. asked government permission to provide credit to its members. It also wanted government to stop Indians from growing cloves.  The government supported C.G.A. The Indians reacted by persuading fellow Indians in Asia and the Far East to stop buying East African cloves.  The result was disaster for Zanzibar.

The new British Resident, Sir John Hall, reduced C.G.A powers and the Indians were allowed to share in the clove industry.  Farmers who were on debt were given credit.  The clove industry recovered and flourished.

ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA

Neither Britain nor Germany was willing to take direct control over the areas they acquired. They left the immediate task of taking over the territories and starting European influence and administration to chartered companies.  These companies involved themselves with money - making ventures as well as establishment of administration and control

William Mackinnon was able to establish a chartered company; the British East African Association, the forerunner of the Imperial British East Africa (IBEA) Company.  Some of its directors were successful businessman for the benefit of Britain and their own pockets. Others were churchmen and humanitarians concerned with stamping out slavery and promoting Christian work.

The company was granted a royal charter in the later part of 1889 and became the IBEA Company.  The Sultan of Zanzibar gave the company full political and judicial authority and the right to levy customs duties on his domain.

The IBEA Company established its administrative headquarters at Mombasa.  It also established a few stations in Machakos area, in Kamba country, Fort Smith among the Kikuyu. The area between the Uganda boarder, which was drawn through the Rift valley to the East of Lake Naivasha, and the coast remained under the IBEA Company.

The protectorate was ruled from Zanzibar by Sir Arthur Hardinge, British consul General there who worked as Commissioner of the Protectorate.

The IBEA Company had built coastal customs stations at Kishanju, Malindi, Banga, Lamu , Witu and Takangu . Interior stations were Machakos, Fort Smith (Dagoretti) and Mumias.

The British government added Mbiri, Nyeri, Embu, Meru, Chuka, Nandi, Mt. Kulai, Ngabotok, Serengeti and Wajir.

By 1895, the Masai had chosen to join forces with the Europeans and aid in the conquest of British East Africa and seized the opportunity to raid the Kamba and Kikuyu to replenish their herds. The Europeans fearing the Masai power agreed to form an alliance with  Laibon Lenana  the Masai ruler in the 1890s.  Even with Masai help conquest of Kenya was very slow.

Ainsworth, the British administrator at Machakos, extended his rule over the surrounding Kamba by use of guns a policy of divide and conquer through alliances with the Kamba near Machakos. Similar factors operated for the extension of authority over the Kikuyu around Fort Smith.  Smallpox epidemic in the 1890s helped to weaken resistance.

MAZRUI RESISTANCE

The first severe challenge to British claims to control Kenya came from the prominent Mazrui family at the coast.  Some Mazrui at Mombasa came to resent British control as hostile to their own position and aspirations.

In a succession dispute, the British backed a rival and Mbara bin Rashid, the disappointment heir, raided the Mazrui against the new colonial order.  The coast in early 1896, the British managed to put down the threat with the help of troops from India.  Mebrasa fled to German East Africa where they were granted asylum.

After 1900, punitive expeditions were sent to the North to bring the Kikuyu people under British rule.  By 1906 most of the Kikuyu and Embu had been conquered and the Meru were subsequently brought under British control.

The western portions of Kenya was part of Uganda until 1902.  From Mumias station, established by IBEA Company the British influence was extended. With the collaboration of the Wanga ruler, Mumia control was established over the Luhya clans and subtribes.  They used same tactics to bring about the conquest of the Luo living along the shores of the lake and Nyanza Gulf.