The term European scramble for East Africa refers to the rush by European powers to acquire territories in East Africa. The major power that participated included Britain, German and Italy.

The term partition of East Africa refers to the actual division of East African territories between Britain and German. Britain took over Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar while German took over Tanganyika. This was the most effective step towards effective colonisation of East Africa what followed was the nature of administrative system or policies.

European Interests in East Africa

European interests in East Africa were generalised as political, social and economic. The Economic reasons are firstly, there was an increasing desire for materials especially minerals, forest products crops such as cotton, coffee, tea and sisal. These were needed to feed their home industries. Such materials were expensive in Europe.

Secondly there was need to secure profitable markets in East Africa. There had been over production in Europe which eventually caused a fall in profits because markets there had been over flooded.

Thirdly, because of the industrial revolution, Britain and German wanted to control territories in East Africa for further investment. They would invest in the exploitation of raw materials such as putting up crop plantations, exploiting minerals and developing transport Network for carrying raw materials and bringing in ready industrial products.

In terms of humanitarian reasons, the European powers had the aim of spreading Christianity and to civilise Africans through their culture and religion was the best in the whole world. Therefore their mission was to convert and civilise Africans. The missionaries naturally supported their home governments in their actions. Hence in Uganda, the French missionaries wanted France to take over while the British missionaries wanted Britain to take. They sometimes conflicted for these.

The Europeans wanted to do away with the evil of slave trade and then replace it with legitimate trade. This however caused tribal wars which resulted into deaths and suffering of many East Africans people due to the selfish economic interests of the Europeans.

There was need for resettling surplus population. Owing to increased wealth from the industrial revolution and high standards of living, there was increased population growth in most European countries. East Africa was hence forth looked at as the only alternative.

Strategic and political reasons range from Nationalism in Europe forced some European countries to get colonies in Africa. In the 2^nd half of the 19^th century, there was growth of nationalism in Europe. This was caused by the emergence of two new more powerful nations in Europe, Germany and Italy.

Germany at the beginning was not interested in colonies. Instead she went about encouraging France to obtain colonies in Africa. This she did because in 1870-71, during the Franco-Prussian war, the French had been defeated and humiliated by the Germans. France lost her coal and iron rich regions of Alsace and Lorraine.

In order to divert France's attention away from these districts, she encouraged her to obtain colonies in Africa. France, being frustrated in Europe, turned to Africa.

European powers came to East Africa to look for colonies for national prestige and sign of greatness. That is the more colonies a power had, the more powerful it was considered to be.

Uganda and later Kenya were colonised by Britain for security and strategic reasons. For example Britain feared that an enemy power would cut off the Nile and turn Egypt into a complete desert. Therefore the British wanted to protect the source of the Nile and to link up the landlocked Uganda to the East Africans coast.

The German traders were also interested in east Africa's coastal trade. They also wanted to control areas around the Kilimanjaro so that could have trade with the Baganda.

The Belgian, French and Germany advances in the Congo and towards Uganda also drove the British to control Uganda. In addition, the activities of Leopold in The Congo attracted other powers to the area and almost caused a crisis. To prevent the crisis, Bismarck of Germany called the Berlin conference in which they gave Congo to Leopold while Bismarck and Germany were sent to East Africa.

Course of European Partition of East Africa

The immediate factor that caused the partition of east Africa was the rivalry between German and Britain on the coast and in the interior of east Africa. There was also rivalry between France and Britain over Egypt. In the end a conference was called to find out a pattern which could be followed during the partition.

The Berlin Conference

The process of partition of East Africa began shortly after the Berlin conference of 1884 - 1885. This was called by Bismarck of Germany to resolve the conflicts in the Congo amongst the European powers namely Belgium, France, Portugal, Britain and German.

The Berlin Conference was called for the following the reasons: First, partitioning Africa without going to war among European countries. Secondly, it was to hold an international conference over Congo and her resources. Thirdly to develop guidelines on the future of acquisition of colonies. Also, to discuss ways of trade and the freedom in those trading areas. Finally to discuss ways and means of ending slave trade completely

The following were the terms of the conference: in the first place, the conference laid down guiding rules for European occupation of Africa without recourse to war.

For any country to claim land in Africa, there should be effective occupation that her nationals should be send to look after the administration of that land.

No country was allowed to interfere in areas already occupied effectively by another European power. Spheres of influence were established by European powers.

If any European country wanted to extend its rule, it should tell the other European powers in order to avoid conflicts.

All European powers were to eliminate slave trade and slavery in their areas of occupation.

The Congo and the Niger were declared free for navigation to all traders from different nations. The Congo Free State was set up under the Congo International Association.

It decided to leave King Leopold of Belgium in Congo, compensated France in West Africa while Britain and German were sent to East Africa.

Achievements and failures of the Berlin conference

The conference brought law and order in the scramble and partition of Africa thus avoiding confrontation among European nations.

It prepared the way for new comers to African Scene requiring that claims to colonise any part of Africa were to be formally notified to other powers.

The conference acknowledged that there was to be no co-operation between a European power and an African state against a fellow European power.

This was a very important aspect because it revealed a high degree of unity that existed among European nations at the expense of Africans.

It marked formal beginning of partition of Africa i.e. from 1884/5.

The conference enacted the effective occupation theory and ensured implementation through the formation of chartered companies e.g. IBEA co. in 1886, GEA.

Encouraged King Leopold's occupation of Congo and strengthened British colonisation of Niger region.

On the otherhand, the failures were observed as follows: Firstly, the Berlin conference emphasised the free navigation on river Niger and Congo but no practical steps were taken.

Secondly, there were no steps taken to encourage free access to the interior by European traders and missionaries

Thirdly, the Berlin conference did not stop slave trade but left for Britain only.

The Berlin conference led to the making of boundaries in Africa without considering the ethnic links of our people.

In some places the policy of effective occupation was not properly observed so Europeans nearly went to war for example German and Britain in East Africa.

The issue of missionaries and their conflicts was completely ignored.

In 1884 H. H. Johnston urged the British government to set up a Kilimanjaro protectorate. However Britain was quite reluctant to move in. This was because Britain did not partly want to clash with German and also Britain was trying to consolidate her position in Egypt.

As for Germany Carl peters arrived in East Africa in 1884. By February 1885 Carl peters had returned from East Africa with treaties of protection placing Usagara, Ungulu, Ukami and Uzigua on mainland. Tanzania under German protection. In the same year German acquired with and part of Kilimanjaro district which Johnston had wished to colonise. German warships even arrived in Zanzibar to protect these areas.

In 1886 Britain changed her attitudes towards East Africa and approved Johnston's treaties in Kilimanjaro district. This was followed by negotiations between the British and German governments to define the territories of the sultan of Zanzibar.

The discussions led to the Anglo-German agreement. This agreement was the first major step in the partition of East Africa.

The Anglo-German agreement

It had the following terms among which the first was that the islands of Pemba, Mafia, Zanzibar, Lamu and the Northern towns of Kismayu, Brave, Merca, Mogadishu and Warsheikh were defined as territories of the sultan of Zanzibar.

Secondly the territory between river Tana and River Ruvuma was divided by a line from the Umba River to Lake Victoria in the North-west. The Northern half became a British sphere of influence while the area to the south became a German sphere of influence. Thirdly, German also acquired the coastline of Witu near present Mombasa. Fourth both powers promised to settle their rival claims in Kilimanjaro district peacefully. However, the western boundary of the two powers and their areas of influence was not defined. As a result, it led to future rivalry and conflict between Britain and German in the later period.

The conflict between German and Britain

Between 1887 and 1888, there was conflict between the British IBEA Company, and the German GEA Company in the Tana River area. The I B E A Company, quarrelled with the German company over a territory stretching 300 km inland from the coast.

In addition, it conflicted with Italy over Northern ports of Kismayu, Merca, Mogadishu and Warsheikh.

The IBEA Company was to push it out of Uganda. These rivalries slowed down the partition exercise.

In 1889, trade rivalry spread to Uganda and western Kenya. In 1890, Carl peters representing GEA Co. signed a treaty of protection with chief Nabongo Jakwa of Wanga Mukulu. This made the whole of Nyanza and western provinces became Germany territories.

Carl peters had signed another treaty with Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda in 1886 on behalf of German. In addition to rumours that a German imperial commissioner would visit Uganda forced Britain to request the I.B.E.A Company to make a counter move. Britain tried through Jackson to secure a similar treaty with Kabaka Mwanga but failed.

It was then that captain Frederick who had just arrived at the coast from India was sent by IBEA Company to Buganda. To prevent war, Britain and German agreed to discuss the issue of Uganda leading to the signing of the Second Anglo-Germany treaty of July 1890.The cause of the Anglo-Germany conflict were as follows;

Firstly, there was a conflict between the two companies IBEA and GEA over the area about 300 km from the coast inland. The GEA took over the area and yet the British East African Association had reached an agreement with Sultan Bargash to trade in the area

Secondly, the Germans were afraid that Britain might be joined with forces from British South African Company (BSACO) and force Germans out of Tanganyika.

Thirdly Britain was also afraid that German Witu Company might link up with German East Africa in Uganda and push them out of Kenya.

Things had gone to another level that between 1886 and 1890, there was a race for Uganda. In 1890, Karl Peters signed a friendship treaty with Mwanga and this worried the British.

Fredrick Jackson, a representative of the IBEA was sent by the British to try and secure a similar treaty but Mwanga refused. When it was rumoured that the German commissioner would visit Uganda, the anxiety increased.

Between 1887 and 1889, the Mahdi besieged Emin Pasha, the governor of Egyptian Equatorial province. Pasha was an Austrian who turned into a Moslem and had abandoned his original names. Karl Peters heard that Jackson was on the way to relieve the siege that would mean that area was now under Britain. However, Pasha was rescued by Stanley before either Peters or Jackson arrived.

In 1888, the IBEA took over took over the job of protecting British interests in East Africa.

How the conflict was resolved

This was solved after a series of discussions that led to the signing of agreements. These were the Anglo German Agreement of 1886 and 1890 By the 1886 agreement, the Sultan's dominion was limited to ten mile coastal strip.

The sultan also acquired the towns of Brava, Kismayu and Merca.

The German sphere of influence was to consist of the area beyond the ten mile coastal strip from River Ruvuma in the south to R. Umba on the foothills of Mt. Kilimanjaro.

The British sphere of influence comprised of the area North of R. Umba.

Witu in modern Kenya was to be a German enclave.

But the 1886 agreement did not cater for Uganda that led to another scramble. As a result, another agreement was signed in July 1890.

The Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 also came to be known as the Heligoland treaty. This was because through this treaty Britain received Uganda and German received Heligoland island, located in the North Sea as a compensation.

Terms of the anglo german agreement of July 1890

German recognised Uganda as within the British spheres of influence thus ending the Anglo-German rivalry and conflicts in the area.

German also abandoned her territory of Witu. This now became part of the British spheres of influence.

German further accepted a British protectorate over Zanzibar, Mafia and Pemba islands.

Britain handed to German the small island of Heligoland in the North Sea as trip of land on Lake Tanganyika and the coast of Tanganyika.

This agreement of 1890 practically completed East African partition, Britain was to control Uganda, Kenya and the dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar while German controlled Tanganyika.

The area from Umba was extended westwards across Lake Victoria.

After this, the map of East Africa was drawn and produced in Europe.

This agreement therefore solved the whole between Britain and Germany. The effective occupation of the area ended it forever.

Why Egypt was interested in Uganda.

Egypt was the first to try to annex the East African territories to its empire. By 1850s they had advanced as far as Gondokoro in Northern Uganda.

In the beginning if the 19^th Century the Egyptians expressed interest in developing their empire southwards to cover the Great Lakes region. This was due to the following factors.

They wanted to start controlling the Nile since it has its source in Uganda. For this reason therefore, Egypt also acted on behalf of other European powers to have a great control of river Nile. Up to the present day, Egypt has her consulate (part of the embassy) at Jinja simply to monitor and protect the strategic interests of Egypt as a sovereign state with river Nile as part of the state property.

They wanted to have a continuous supply of slaves since there was a shortage in the north and perhaps they wanted more non Moslems to be sold as slaves especially from Uganda. However, the situation changed when Khedive Ismail came to power

They wanted to participate in the prosperous long distance trade. This trade was very profitable at that time and it involved the Khatoumers from Sudan, the Baganda, Nyamwezi and the Coastal people among others.

The Egyptians wanted to create the Equatorial province in order to exploit gold and timber especially in Southern Sudan.

Their attempt to attack Bunyoro in 1874 under Kabalega was a failure because Kabalega had a strong force that they could not defeat.

Results of the Scramble, Partition and Colonialism of Africa

Firstly Colonialism introduced a cash crop economy in Africa; this cash crop economy was to facilitate the established colonial states, which the imperialists had, began while the Africans did not benefit much.

Secondly, there was emphasis on the production of cash crops in relation to food crops, thus it led to frequent famine. Since people spent more time producing what could not be eaten.

They introduced forced labour. The many plantations of cotton, tobacco, coffee, sugarcane, among others were worked on by force. Forced labour was introduced to enable Africans raise money for paying taxes.

Fourthly, compulsory taxation was introduced as a way of making people to work on European owned farms in order to get money. People were supposed to pay tax in money form, which was difficult to obtain. This compelled the people to work in companies for very low wages. This compulsory labour and taxation were the major causes of rebellions for example the Majimaji of Tanzania.

On a negative side still colonialism destroyed African technology. All the local manufacturing was condemned. Therefore, at the end of it the whole society was rendered dependent in every article needed, which had to come from Europe. This perpetuated the backwardness in which we are in today.

On the side of the infrastructure, internal transport was ignored. Emphasis was put on railway transport. The major reason was to create easy handling of huge volume of goods away from colonies.

Industrialization was only geared at processing plants. No attempt was made to establish heavy industry. These processing plants were meant to reduce the bulk and hence lowering transport costs to Europe.

Their education system fed the Africans with Anti-work ideology and were trained only for some education, which lacked relevancy to the social set up. This increased on the poverty and the backwardness in which East African people are still languishing today.

Loss of independence was due to colonialism. With the coming of colonialists, most of Africa's strong empires and kingdoms became disorganized and powerless. Kings lost control over their people.

There was division of ethnic groups. People of the same culture were forced to form different countries, which were ruled by different people. Examples are the Gishu and Samia in Kenya and Uganda, Somalis in Kenya, Somalia and Ethiopia; the Banyarwanda in Uganda, Rwanda. That mistake has been a fundamental source of endless inter state conflicts.

Colonialism prevented the growth of national unity. This is because Europeans used many methods, which left Africans, divided. They included indirect rule, divide and rule, and even use of force. When the Baganda were made rulers of Bunyoro, Toro and most parts of Eastern Uganda during indirect rule, they were hated for a long time.

Colonialism was responsible for underdevelopment such that African countries have to rely on developed countries for aid.

Colonialism was responsible for religious conflicts such as those between Protestants and Catholics in Uganda which started with religious wars of 1886 - 1892. Later political parties were formed along the same lines.

Foreign social behaviours have been introduced in East Africa such as homosexual, lesbianism and prostitution.

Some people in East Africa were highly tortured during colonial period hence creating a class of people who suffered from inferiority complex. This was common in Kenya where there was Mau Mau rebellion.

People of African have to rely on developed countries for foreign aid which makes them lose their independence. It was said by Kwame Nkrumah that political independence without economic independence is sham Independence.

Colonialism has promoted consumption of foreign manufactured goods which has given them more market in Africa than locally made goods.

It has promoted use of foreign languages in Africa such as French, English, German; Spanish as a result people are more attached to those countries than theirs.

New cash crops such as coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco and sisal were introduced in Africa which widened the exportable crops from East Africa.

There was increase in trade between East Africa and Europe. This trade was for the great benefit of Europe since they were selling expensive manufactured goods against the cheap agricultural products from East Africa.

Loss of fertile land to white settlers especially in Kenya highlands and the districts of Nyeri and Kiambu. Natives were turned into squatters who were living in camps and were supposed to have a Kipande in order to move from one area to the other. The resultant factor was the outbreak of the Mau Mau war of 1953-1955 in Kenya.

Urbanization came up in Africa due to the need for market centres especially where whites settled. Small trading centres like Kampala, Jinja, Mbale, Kisumu and Nairobi turned into major towns and cities.

Development of transport and communication in form of roads, railways and airports. For easy transportation of goods from one area to another.

Promotion of brain drain where most educated people have gone to developed countries for jobs. Since most of the intellectuals are not paid within East Africa.

Creation of import and export system based on Europe's demand.

Rural urban migration came up because people had to look for jobs in towns.

Colonial boundaries have remained a source of interstate conflicts in Africa.

Colonialism led to loss of lives and property in East Africa especially in Tanganyika during the Maji Maji resistance and in Kenya during the Mau Mau, and Nandi revolts.

There was introduction of legitimate trade which replaced slave trade. This trade enriched some people in East Africa as

Discouragement of Africans to take off especially in the areas of African local industry, medicine and trade.

Methods used by Britain to Colonise Uganda and Kenya.

The British used various methods during the colonisation of East Africa depending on the nature of each society's response. These were:

British used the method of direct military conquest. This was used against the rebellious tribes of Nandi, Karamojong, Acholi and Bunyoro resistance under Omukama Kabalega. After defeating the above forms of resistance, the British directly occupied these societies.

Secondly there was signing of treaties. The British signed several treaties for example they signed a treaty protection with Lenana of the Masai, the Buganda agreement of 1900, the Toro agreement of 1900 and the Ankole agreement of 1902. These treaties were later used to claim justification for occupation of these areas.

Collaboration was another method used by the British. The British used African collaborators to spread their rule in Uganda and Kenya. For example they used Semei Kakungulu to conquer and control the whole of Eastern and some parts of Northern Uganda. Nuwa Mbaguta was used in Ankole, Lenana among the Masai. Mumia Nabongo of Wanga and the Baganda Protestant chiefs. These either offered their men to fight for the British or their territories were used as bases for fighting the enemies of the British.

British used this method of divide and rule. The British encouraged two or more societies with traditional hostilities to remain unfriendly and hostile to each other. For example Buganda against Bunyoro, the Kikuyu against the Masai and Nandi. In these circumstances, the Africans could not unite against the British and any form of resistance was also weakened by lack of support from other Africans societies.

Christian Missionaries were used by Britain to colonise Uganda and Kenya. These missionaries through their Biblical teachings softened the hearts and minds of young converts such that they always collaborated with the colonial powers. They established links with African Chiefs to sign treaties with the British for example the Buganda agreement of 1900.

Use of force or direct intimidation was another way of colonising. This was mainly experienced in Bunyoro, Acholi, Karamoja and Nandi territories. The resistors like Mwanga and Kabalega were sent to Seychelles islands and in the Indian Ocean. As a result other societies which would have resisted simply gave in just. In 1926, Omukama Kasagama of Toro made a remark that the local District Commissioner had done little for his area. He was "humbled" and fined Shs. 1000 ( a very large amount at the time) and made to write undertaking never to make "such a mistake" in future.

"I will henceforth abide to the orders by the government of Uganda shall always obey the government officials who the governor may send to administer Toro: I will also be careful to carry out all orders properly" [1]

Explorers were used by colonialists to promote: They mapped the interior of East Africa, gave reports of areas that were economically viable reported on the evils of slave trade and established working relations with the African Chiefs. It should however, be noted that these explorers were mainly used in the initial stages.

Lastly Traders played a very important role: The British used the I B E A co to finish the initial administration on behalf of the British colonial government, they signed treaties with chiefs, defeated the rebellious tribes, built infrastructure and provided security through the use of Swahili, Arab, Ganda and Sudanese mercenaries.

In conclusion, various methods were employed by the British depending on the nature of the situation and at the end of the day, Uganda and Kenya were effectively put under British rule. Whatever the cosmetic differences in the methods of administration, Europeans had one objective in common; they were all in Africa for what they could get out her.

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[1] Kabyegyere T. (1974): The Politics of State formation, EA Literature Bureau, Nairobi.