Mau- Mau has been defined in different ways by different schools of thought. The Kenya colonial officials, missionaries, church leaders and white settlers defined MauMau as: A movement designed to achieve Kikuyu dominance in Kenya at the expense of the country under British rule.

A barbaric, atavistic and anti-European tribal cult (dini) whose leaders planned to turn Kenya into land of darkness and death. Professors Carl. G. Roseberg Jr. and John Nattingham, the authors of the "Myth of Mau Mau - Nationalism Kenya " define the Mau - Mau movement as: " Militant Nationalism which characterized the politics of Central Kenya before and during the early years of the emergency in Kenya between 1952 and 1960.

Professor B. A Ogot of Kenya takes Mau mau to mean: " A desperate attempt by a desperate people to change a system of economic and social injustice which has been marked feature of Kenya history"

Others who are interested in the Mau Mau movement and sympathizers of the Kenyans who were affected take it to mean a Kikuyu movement which resisted alien forces which were treating Africans as less human beings and which (the forces) deprived the Africans of their fertile land and made them perpetual labourers of European settlers. Whatever meaning is taken, we can argue, the Mau Mau movement took place in order to solve certain neglected problems caused it.

CAUSES OF THE MAU MAU REBELLION

Mau mau was caused by the grievances over land alienation. The increase in population in the Kenya Highlands created a land shortage in 1949. The land in the two provinces was so eroded that it could not support large population in the areas which were near what the Kenyans called ‘stolen land.

On the European farms the population of the squatters increased and the children of the squatters were unemployed and had nowhere to go since they were brought up on these farms. The European farmers wanted to avoid the problem of overpopulation by evicting some of these squatters and sending them to new reserves or to the already overpopulated and greatly eroded reserves.

Worse still some Europeans who settled on the ‘stolen land' had the finest and most productive coffee estates in the world and at the same time acted to prevent any parallel planting of coffee, sisal and pyrethrum by Africans. The Kenyans argued that the land the whites were fencing and from which they evicted Africans was theirs.

The suffering of Africans in reserves contributed to the Mau Mau rebellion. Reserves were created for Africans whose land had been grabbed. These unfortunate Africans included the Kikuyu, Masai and Nandi. Reserves were overcrowded, unproductive, dirty and disease infested. Africans had never lived under such conditions before colonial rule. They became annoyed and joined the rebellion.

The desire to end their squatter status. Land grabbing by whites had rendered the majority of Kenyans landless. Hence they had no choice but to live as squatters on the white man's farms- offering cheap manual labour. The feeling of living as squatters on land that was formerly theirs pained them to the point of revolt. They felt a sense of "nothingness" since traditionally, any Kikuyu man without land was no man.

The desire to please the ancestral spirits. Kikuyu land had religious values. The land had been handed down to them by their ancestors and contained the ancestral burial grounds. A fear arose amongst the young that their ancestors would be angered by their failure to drive away the white man. As war songs put it: "they will be asked... Why did you sell our land?"

The unpopular agricultural programmes. The colonial government introduced a soil conservation policy by which all the Kikuyu were expected to carry out compulsory terracing across the ridges. This was designed as a way of controlling soil erosion. However, due to the small size of farms, this policy was seen as a mockery to Africans. In Ukamba land, government introduced a policy of cattle de- stocking as a way of preventing overgrazing. But even this was received with suspicion, leading to war.

Grievances over idle-land. White settlers owned large pieces of land which were idle. This brewed feelings of jealousy amongst the landless Africans who appealed to the colonial government for land reforms but in vain. The land commission of the 1930s had left the problem largely unsolved. This made the radical members of the Kenya African Union to form the Land Freedom Army (the official name of the Mau Mau).

Urban unemployment contributed to the rebellion. Having been uprooted from their land, most Kikuyu flocked to towns- especially Nairobi in search of jobs. Unfortunately, the few who chanced to get jobs were poorly paid while the majority remained jobless, redundant, ready to smash and grab. Such people provided the manpower for the Land Freedom Army.

Cash crop restrictions, Indigenous Kenyans were prevented from growing cash crops such as coffee, pyrethrum and sisal. Since these were the most profitable cash crops at the time, Africans interpreted the British restriction as a calculated move to impoverish them. Chief Koinange tried to grow coffee but ended up in courts of law where he was seriously reprimanded to stop the act. This goaded Africans into arms against the British.

The introduction of the Kipande system also drove Kenyans into rebellion. This was a kind of identity card or certificate of registration given to the Africans to restrict their movements. Restrictions on movements were aimed at keeping Africans busy working on European farms. The Kipande stated one's name, age, village and thumb print etc.

Africans hated forced labour. Africans were not only forced to work on European plantations but were also required to offer labour on public works like roads, railways and buildings. This forced labour was unknown in pre-colonial societies and therefore became unpopular, leading to the Mau Mau rebellion.

Famine and starvation. Most Africans were busy producing cash crops on white man's plantations. This made them neglect food crop production for their own up keep. In overcrowded reserves, the situation was worse. The land was limited and dry, leading to low food output- hence famine and starvation. This annoyed the people to the point of revolt since they related it to loss of land.

Racial discrimination contributed to the Mau Mau rebellion. Kenyans were not only discriminated in residential areas but also in other aspects of life. Right from the reserves, the colour bar policy was followed to the restaurants, schools, hospitals and even toilets which were labelled "Europeans", "Asians" and "Africans".

Over taxation and poverty. Colonialists introduced high taxes and initially it were only the Africans to pay. Due to lack of land, the poor Africans had to seek for employment on white owned farms to get money for taxes. The high taxes made the sweat of Africans virtually useless. It was this exploitation of man by man that led to the Mau Mau.

Religious and cultural clashes also led to the Mau Mau rebellion.

Traditionally, the Kikuyu had their gods who were serving them well. They had a strong culture that emphasised the circumcision of both male and female as per the instruction of the founders of the Kikuyu society, Gikuyu and Mumbi.

When the Scottish missionaries established a mission in Kikuyu land, they branded female circumcision as primitive, barbaric and un-Christian. When some Kikuyu women started giving up female circumcision, the stage was set for the Mau Mau insurrection.

The influence of the ex-service men also led to the Mau Mau rising. On their return from the second world war, Kenyan ex-service men such as Waruhiu Itote, Bildad Kaggia and Paul Ngei found life very miserable. This was due to the colour bar system, unemployment and unfulfilled promises of the colonial masters. During the war, they had come into contact with Asian nationalists, European democrats and socialists etc. Soon, they became impatient with KAUs peaceful struggle for independence and spearheaded the Mau Mau rebellion. They started by forming the Fourty-group.

The desire for independence. Kenya's politics was dominated by whites who were assisted by local African chiefs to implement the unpopular colonial policies. The local African chiefs were illiterate and served the interests of the Europeans at the expense of African interests. This was hated by the young educated Kenyans who were deliberately sidelined by colonial masters for fear of criticism. No wonder why the elites were among the leaders of the rebellion.

The failure of peaceful methods led to the Mau Mau rebellion. In 1944, Eluid Mathu founded the Kenya African Union (KAU) and demanded for political, economic and social reforms. However KAUs major demand throughout the 1930s and 1940s was land reform, for example the KAU sent its representatives- Mbiyu Koinange and Achieng Oneko to meet the colonial secretary and discuss land reforms. Unfortunately, the colonial secretary refused to meet the KAU delegates. This convinced the radical members of the KAU that violence was the only language the whites could understand.

The Kikuyu desire to control Kenya's politics. Since all Kenyans were tired of white settler dominance in Kenya, the Kikuyu hatched a secret desire of taking over Kenya's politics after the departure of the whites. This partly explains why they were the majority in the Mau Mau rebellion.

Unfair political representation. By 1945, there was only one African on the colonial legislative council (colonial parliament), and by 1951, they were only five. To make matters worse, there was no single African representative on the colonial executive council until 1954. This was looked at with negativity by the Kenyan elites who were suffering from serious unemployment. Without representation, there was no way African interest would be championed.

The 20th October 1952 state of emergency led to the rebellion. Sir Evelyn Baring declared a state of emergence on 20th October 1952 and this led to the arrest and detention of Jomo Kenyatta, Fred Kubai, Bildad Kaggia, Kungu Karumba and Paul Ngei. They were sentenced to 7 years imprisonment. For fear of being arrested, a number of unemployed Kikuyu joined the Kenya Land and freedom Army (Mau Mau).

The conducive terrain also contributed to the outbreak of the rebellion. The thicker bamboo forests on the slopes of Mountain Kenya plus the valley and hilly Aberdare ranges provided ideal zones which made Kenyan nationalists to think about guerrilla war fare.

The influence of West African nationalism led to the Mau Mau rebellion- Both the British and French were busy reforming their colonial policies in Western Africa. Already, the 1944 Brazzaville conference had recommended a reform of French colonialism in Africa. The British had taken similar steps for example by granting constitutions to both Nigeria and Gold Coast in 1946. it was such a wind of change across Africa at the time that imbued a revolutionary spirit amongst Kenyans. Hence the Mau Mau rebellion.

The domination of Kenya's economy by Asians also fuelled feelings of nationalism amongst the largely hungry and unemployed Africans. Hence they joined the Kenya Land and Freedom Army to fight for a return of Kenya's economy into African hands.

Development of the Mau Mau movement

The words Mau- Mau were first heard in March 1948 when Government was investigating a case of intimidation of the Kikuyu squatter labourers. Governor Philip Mitchell underestimated the strength of Mau Mau and its seriousness. He regarded the movement as only one of the cults (dinis) or as one of the periodic out - breaks of violence.

By 1950 the African leaders in Kenya had become very impatient with the government's failure to alleviate the above grievances and with the way the Governments was slowing down the African attempts to be represented in large numbers on the legislative Council. They attributed the failure and slow - down to the influence of the white settlers who, according to one of them "had come to stay and so other races had to accept that fact with all that it implied".

By the end of 1951 Mau-Mau had started to be felt.

A group of extreme members of the KAU and a number of ex - soldiers founded an underground movement in the Nairobi area. They decided to use force and every member had to take an oath promising to oust the white settlers out of Kenya, to obey his leaders and to keep secrets. One of the members and leaders detained at Kapenguria described how he was given a new oath on his return. He said,

" I held the blood in a calabash in my right hand and the meat in my left hand. As I took them, I repeated these words to my people: If I become an enemy of my land or my people or if I become lazy in working for my people and country, let this blood and meat kill me straightly. If I am ever bribed to abandon my people, if we changed our minds since we went to detention may this oath kill us.13

The oath - takers called themselves ‘Kenya land Freedom Army' but they were best known as Mau Mau.

In 1951 the KAU asked the Colonial Government for direct elections on a common roll and one KAU member, Fred Kubai , even appealed to the Government to make Kenya independent in three year's time.

Some members of the Mau- Mau movement began to move into the forests chiefly in the Aberdare and Mt. Kenya areas in 1951.

On October 7^th , 1952 Senior Chief Waruhiu, the leading Government spokesman on Kikuyuland was assassinated , Sir Evelyn Baring , the new Governor on 20^th October , 1952 signed a declaration of a state of emergency in Kenya.

" A public emergency has arisen which makes it necessary to confer special powers on the Government and its officers for the purpose of maintaining law and order".

On 21^st October 1952 at 12.45 a.m Kenyatta was arrested at his home at Gatundu in the Kiambu Reserve. Later many other KAU leaders were arrested and charged with organizing and supporting violence. Armed forces were brought into action and reinforcement troops were flown out from Britain.

In April 1953 the KAU was banned. This was followed by mass arrests of the Kikuyu and all suspects. They were herded into protected villages and their movements were controlled. In the same month Kenyatta and his colleagues were tried at Kapenguria and convicted. Kenyatta was sentenced to seven year's imprisonment at Lodwar near L. Turkana.

By the end of 1956 the resistance of the Mau Mau freedom fighters had been mostly broken since many outstanding leaders including Waruhiu Itote (General China) and Dedan Kimathi had been captured. Disagreements among the remaining Mau-Mau followers also greatly weakened their cause. Up to the end of 1956 the official list of causalities stood as follows:

Mau-Mau Side: 11,503 Kikuyu killed, 1,035 Kikuyu captured wounded, 1, 550 Kikuyu unwounded, 26,625 Arrested, 2,714 Surrendered

Government Side (both Civilians and Armed Forces) were 95 Europeans killed, 127 Europeans wounded, 29 Asians killed, 48 Asians wounded, 1,920 Africans killed, and 2,385 Africans wounded.

RESULTS OF THE MAU-MAU REBELLION

The British realised that something wrong had happened in Kenya. The government was forced to revise its pledge in the 1923 Devonshire White paper in that had declared Kenya to be for Africans. They therefore, decided to talk with African leaders about the future of Kenya instead of merely continuing with the state of emergency. In the course of the discussions power shifted from the hands of the white settler minority to the African majority.

It forced the Government to create a more stable policy towards African participation in the Government of Kenya beyond the level of 5 African member, not elected but nominated by the Governor.

It encouraged the Government to bring stability by effecting constitutional changes that catered for the interests of races. The Government effected the 1954, 1957 and 1960 constitutional and other changes.

The Africans and the whites accepted that a multi - racial society was the only acceptable solution to Kenya problems. Each race, they realised, had to accept the peaceful existence of another.

In 1960 Britain lifted the emergency and released most of the political prisoners connected with the Mau Mau.

It popularized the KAU leaders who were imprisoned. Mzee Jomo Kenyatta, for example , distinguished himself as an undoubted leader of independent Kenya and as a national hero.

It created a friendly relationship between Africans and the colonial government which resulted into a friendly multi - racial society which the white settlers never expected to exist in Kenya led by Africans.

In 1954 during the time of the Mau Mau Movement, Oliver Lyttelton, the colonial Secretary, visited Kenya and proposed measures he thought would bring peace to Kenya . He recommended:

A multi - racial Council of Ministers to replace the Executive Council. It was made up of 6 civil servants, two Governor's nominees plus 6 elected or representative members of the Legco(2 Europeans , 2 Asians and 1 African) Mr. B.A Ohanga became the first African to hold a Ministerial post.

The number of Africans in the Legislative Council to be increased to 6. The Lyttelton proposals were opposed by the whites led by Captain Briggs because the whites would not accept multi - racial government on any conditions. Since all African leaders of the KAU were in prison by this time many Africans felt the proposals wanted to perpetuate European domination.

The Mau-Mau fighters were militarily defeated. This was achieved through the deployment of British troops, police, local African collaborators, armoured vehicles, artillery fire and Lancaster bomber-planes. The capture of Waruhiu Itote (General China) in February 1954 and Dedan Kimathi in October 1956 signaled the British victory over the Mau- Mau fighters. However, though they lost the battle, Mau-Mau fighters won the war.

There was a colossal loss of human lives. At the end of the rebellion in 1956, the number of people who had died in battle were 11,503 Mau Mau fighters, 1,920 loyal Africans fighting for the British (a total of 13423 Africans in all), 66 European soldiers, 29 European civilians (a total of 95 Europeans in all) and 29 Asian civilians . Added to these were a number of innocent women and children who died of disease and starvation in overcrowded camps.

Destruction of property took place. From the start in 1952, the Mau Mau raided shops and police stations to obtain fire arms for example in March 1-953, they raided Naivasha police station. Looted a number of arms and released 173 prisoners. They also attacked European farms and mutilated their cattle, destroyed crops, burnt the farms and houses of African chiefs and headmen who were loyal to British colonialists. This caused some economic setback.

It resulted into a state of emergency. The violent nature of the freedom fighters made the Governor- Sir Evelyn Baring, to declare a state of emergency in Kenya starting from 20th October 1952- 1956. This was a risky period characterised by night curfew, arrests, beatings and imprisonment of nationalists suspected of connections with Mau Mau for example KAU leaders like Jomo Kenyatta, Bildad Kaggia, Fred Kubai Kungu Karumba and Paul Ngei were arrested, tried at Kapenguria court and sentenced to 7 years hard labour.

Fortified villages were created by the government as a means of separating civilians from the guerrillas. Hundreds of thousands of Kikuyu were forced into the protected villages. Other tribes like the Embu, Kamba, Luo also existed in camps but in smaller numbers, for example During the "Operation Anvil" of 1954 in Nairobi police and soldiers rounded up to about 100,000 Africans (mostly Kikuyu) and held them in detention camps. They were accused of being idle in Nairobi.

It led to the torture of suspects. Although the original aim of detention camps was to reform the detainees and divert their attention from the Mau Mau struggle. Later the detention camps were turned into places of torture for example at Hola camp, several Kikuyu youths aged between 16-35 years were roughly questioned, subjected to hard labour, tortured and some killed. Areas neighbouring the detention camps and fortified villages were set on fire and trees cut to create free fire zones, prevent detainees from escaping unnoticed and cut off rebel supplies.

Political parties were banned. Due to its suspected role in organising the Mau-Mau insurrection, the KAU and other minor parties were banned in 1953. And with the arrest of its leaders, the party (KAU) went into oblivion. Even after the rebellion, it became hard for it to -re-organise. During the rebellion, its roles were taken over by trade unions and after the rebellion, new stronger parties emerged to replace it.

It contributed to ethnic tensions in Kenya. The British decampaigned the Mau-Mau as a Kikuyu tribal affair that was barbaric and atavistic. They advised other ethnic groups to shun the rebellion and to help crush it. Those who fought against the Mau-Mau guerrillas were rewarded while the Kikuyu were humiliated. They were removed from the civil service, many were arrested, detained, tortured and some were killed.

There was a temporary set back in Kenyan nationalism. This was due to the banning of the KAU, imprisonment of patriots, inter-ethnic hostilities and divisions between the loyal conservatives and the young nationalists. Hence it became difficult to have a united front against colonial rule. Even the future political parties were formed on ethnic or regional basis. These were the KANU and KADU.

It delayed the early return to independence. Though at first Kenya was ahead of Tanganyika in terms of political, educational, economic and constitutional development, her independence came much later than that of Tanganyika because of the Mau Mau rebellion. During the period of violent exchanges, no meaningful negotiations could be made for the independence of Kenya

Positively , it shattered the British intentions of turning Kenya into a white man's country. The political domination of the white settlers came to an end and the British government came in seriously to run the politics of Kenya which ft had hitherto left into white settler hands. Without the Mau Mau, Kenya would possibly have been turned into a white man's country like South Africa and Southern Rhodesia.

It laid the foundation for self rule. The British came to realise that Kenyans wanted self government. So, they carried out political reforms which catalysed the process of independence for example In 1954, ;is the rebellion raged on, the colonial secretary Oliver Lyttelton introduced a multi racial council of ministers. The first African to the colonial cabinet was appointed was B.A Ohanga from Nyanza province. He became minister for community development. A number of other Kenyans were recruited in the civil service.

African political parties were released. As a result of the Mau Mau, the ban which had been put on political parties as lifted in 1955. These parties were at first allowed only at a provincial but later at a national level. Hence in 1956, the Nairobi district African Congress (NDAC) was founded by Argwings Kodhek, in 1957 the Nairobi Peoples' Convention Party was formed by Tom Mboya; in July 1959 the Kenya National Party was formed and in August the Kenya Independence movement was formed. These later became KADU and KANU respectively.

It led to land reforms. The British government adopted the Swynnerton Plan by which the Kikuyu and other aggrieved Africans were allocated land and even allowed to grow the cash crops that had originally been restricted. Hence between 1954-1959, African coffee planting rose from 4,000 to 26,000 acres. By I960, almost 90,000 Africans (89,000 in 1959) were growing coffee. This led to some improvements in the standard of living, However, land allocation mainly benefited the Home guards those who fought against the Mail Mau, Most Kikuyu were allocated swampy or arid lands.

It led to constitutional progress. In 1957, six Africans were elected to the legislative assembly. They included Oginga Odinga, Ronald Ngala, Tom Mboya and Daniel Arap Moi. In 1958, the new colonial secretary Alan Lennox-Boyd increased the African membership on the Legco to fourteen elected members plus four special appointees. These Africans used their position on the Legco to demand for speedy independence and the release of political prisoners. They adopted a slogan "Uhuru na Kenyatta", which meant "No Kenyatta, no independence".

It led to the release of political prisoners. For instance in August 1961 Mzee Jomo Kenyatta was released, elected to the Legislative Assembly and made president of the Kenya African National Union (KANU). Not to forget the 173 prisoners who were released by rebels during the height of the Mau Mau rising.

The colour bar policy was dropped. After the war, the British government announced plans of removing all sorts of discrimination based on skin colour. The "White Highlands" were opened to Africans and the health of Africans got more funding, Africans were appointed to top posts in the civil service, African cultural development was allowed and Trade Union activities were permitted. Hence an African felt a sense of belonging to his country.

It accelerated the independence of other countries. For fear of the re-occurrence of such a disastrous revolt, the British hurried to grant independence to Tanganyika in 1961 and Uganda in 1962. It even made them adjust their policies in Central African Countries like Malawi and Rhodesia. They hurried to send troops there having realised the weakness and vulnerability of white settlers.

It led to the 1960 and 1962 constitutional conferences in Lancaster House- London. These provided for an elected African majority in the legislative council.

It cost Britain about 50 million pounds to suppress it. This led to economic strain on the British and Kenyan tax payer, Temporary economic decline also beset Kenya due to the fleeing of some white investors along with their capital

It challenged ex-service men in all countries of Africa to step up and lead the independence struggles for example In Algeria and Portuguese colonies.

REASONS WHY THE MAU-MAU REBELLION WAS DEFEATED

Although Africans won the war (due to the positive impact that accrued), they lost the battle (were militarily defeated). This was due to the following reasons:

The Mau- Mau fighters had used, very old, locally manufactured and rudimentary guns. Some of them fought using pangas, sticks, stones and metal bars. Such weapons couldn't win a war really.

The colonial army had up to date weapons, some of which had been applied during the second world war against Germany. These included armoured vehicles, artilleries, Engfield guns, Lancaster bomber planes. With these, they over powered the Man Mail guerrillas.

There was betrayal by fellow Africans. The British trained some Africans, gave them favours like land and sent them to the bushes to pretend as if they were part of the Mau Mau fighters. These managed to kill and arrest a number of the guerrillas because they were not easy to detect.

The nature of the terrain. Though they provided good hiding bases, the ridges /hills also proved a barrier to communication. Since the Mau Mau guerrillas camped on various ridges, it was easy for the British to isolate them and fight them ridge by ridge. Hence ridges were a barrier to effective co-ordination.

The British divide and rule policy where by they spread the anti-revolutionary propaganda" terming the Mau Mau as a Kikuyu tribal affair. They discouraged other tribes from joining the rebellion.

The British scotched earth policy. The British plus their African collaborators set forests and gardens on fire. This not only led to the death of some guerrillas but also destroyed their means of survival. Many guerrillas had become accustomed to hiding in nearby forests and farms where they obtained food and took to fellow guerrillas. The scotched earth policy ended this and weakened the fighters. They started living on roots, birds; berries yet some of these were poisonous.

Opposition from the landed aristocrats. Most of the rich old men including Kikuyus opposed the use of violence and this undermined the struggle.

Lack of KAU support. Since the Mau-Mau fighters were a break away group from the moderate KAU, this prevented full co-operation between the KAU moderates and Mau, Mau radicals (the 40 group). This too, weakened the Mau-Mau fighters.

The destruction of rebel bases in Nairobi. The Mau-Mau had its urban Headquarters at Mathare valley, a slum for Africans. It was used as a channel for new recruits, pistols, medicine and it even had workshops for manufacturing locally made guns. However it was discovered and destroyed by government forces in 1953.

The capture of its leaders. During the course of the fighting, Mau-Mau leaders were captured for example Itote (General China) was captured in February 1954 while Dedan Kimathi was captured in October 1956 and hanged . This demoralised the fighters.

False protection from their gods. The Mau Mau fighters wrongly believed that the founders of their society- Gikuyu and Mumbi plus other gods and ancestral spirits were fighting on their side. This belief was cemented through a number of oaths and rituals the fighters under went. The oaths gave the fighters psychological courage and many went on the battlefield armed will) nothing but courage' Hence they were killed in big numbers and defeated.

Lack of foreign support explains the defeat of the Mau Mau . Unlike the Algerian and Angolan nationalists who received financial and military support fellow Africans and the Eastern block, the Mau Mau fighters were disadvantaged. It was a self-reliant movement which was destroyed due to this fact.

The British obtained re-enforcement troops from Uganda and even U.K.. Among Ugandan commanders against the Mau Mau fighters was the youthful and militarily genius Idi Amin Dada.

The timing of the revolt was wrong. This is because the British colonialists were still deeply entrenched in Tanganyika, Zanzibar and Uganda.

The area of operation was small, Mau Mau fighters failed to capture large bases and were easily rounded up.

Internal rivalries led to disputes, in fighting, delayed decision making and poor organisation. All these led to the defeat of the Mau- Mau.

The Lancaster House constitutional conference (Jan - Feb 1960)

After replacing Lennox - Boyd as Colonial Secretary, Ian Macleod held a constitutional conference to prepare the political and constitutional development of Kenya.

The Kenya African delegates demanded but failed to get the release of Kenyatta to enable him to attend the conference. But they managed to get two advisors: Dr. Thurgood Marshall, a Negro Lawyer known to Tom Mboya , and Peter Mbiu Koinange who was then associated with the MauMau movement but in service of Nkrumah's African Bureau in ACCRA. Koinange made a good advisor because he was conversant with Kenya affairs.

The conference lasted five weeks and the members recommended:

• Kenya to be an African - ruled country.
• Africans to have a majority both in the Legco and in the Council of Ministers.
• Kenya to have a common roll of voters.
• The constitutional proposals to be effectivein1961.

Legislature to consist of 33 African Elected Members; 10 European elected Members; 8 Asian elected members; 2. Arab Elected members and 12 National members elected by the Legco constituency members. The council of Ministers to consist of: 4 Africans, 3 Europeans, 1 Asian, 3 Nominees of the Governor.

PARTIES FORMED AFTER THE LANCASTER CONSTITUTIONAL MEETING.

The Kenya Coalition

This party was formed by European settlers under Cavendish Bentinck as a expression of discontentment resulting from the Macleod settlement. The K.C failed because it had the support of only the European community.

The Kenya African National Union (KANU)

It was formed in the last week of March 1960 at the Kiambu meeting. The members chose Jomo Kenyatta as their President and for this reason the Government refused to register KANU as a political party. Gichuru was elected Acting President on condition that he would stand down on Kenyatta's release. Odinga became its Vice President and Tom Mboya its Secretary.

Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU)

KANU was too town - centred and dominated by the Luo and the Kikuyu. The Kalenjin and Masai did not feel it their party and so they formed their own party the KADU with the intention of protecting the interests of the minorities. For this reason the KADU advocated regionalism.

The New Kenya Party (N.K.P)

It was another party which Michael Blundell formed after his former Kenya Coalition had failed.

The role of parties in attaining Kenya's independence

A number of pre-independence panics were formed in Kenya but the roles played by the KAU and KANU tow higher. The KAU-Kenya African Union was formed in 1944 by Eliud Mathu together with James Gichuru. That same year, Eliud Mathu was appointed as Kenya's first African representative to the colonial legislative council.

The KAU naturally emerged from the earlier quasi-political associations such as the Kikuyu Central Association. Consequently, it was dominated by the Kikuyu.

The Kenya African Union was dominated by the elites most of whom were unemployed as a result of discrimination by whites. So, it de-campaigned colour bar. The KAU also called for land, political and constitutional reforms in Kenya.

The KAU leaders made an attempt to recruit members from other tribes in an attempt to make it a mass nationalist party. Some members of other tribes joined and were even appointed to top offices for example Achieng Oneko and Ambrose Ofafa from Nyanza, Paul Ngei from Ukambani and Tom Mbotela from the coast.

An attempt was also made to open up KAU branches in Kisumu and other areas so as to attract wide membership.

The KAU preferred the use of non-violent methods to achieve independence. It wanted land, political and constitutional reforms. KAU worked hand in hand with independent church and school movements to spread nationalistic zeal. It also worked in close co-operation with Trade Unionists.

When Kenyatta returned from England in 1946, he joined the KAU and soon became its president. But him too was moderate.

In the mid 1940s, the youths and ex-service men felt dissatisfied with KAU's constitutional methods and split off from the KAU. They formed the Fourty group and threatened to use violence to attain independence.

Soon, the forty group formed the Kenya Land and freedom army which formed the core of the Mau Mau rebellion.

KAU maintained remote contacts with the Mau Mau and this led to the arrest and detention of KAU leaders including the moderate Jomo Kenyatta. He wasn't released until 1961

KAU was banned in 1953, never to rise again. New political parties and trade Unions took over from where the KAU had stopped. Among the new parties, KANU was the most prominent

The KANU was formed in July 1960 by African Members of the Legislative council. It was a party mainly for the Kikuyu and Luo but included a number of Meru, Embu, Akamba and Kissi. Its leaders were James Gichuru, Tom Mboya and Oginga Odinga.

KANU's demands were: Independence for Kenya and the return of political power to Africans; the release of Jomo Kenyatta and other political prisoners; the return of land to Africans; Respect of African culture; equal educational and job opportunities; to end to colour bar; the unity of all Kenyans; and economic independence.

The KANU campaigned widely for support in urban and rural areas.

A rival party- the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) was formed in I960 for fear of a possible Kikuyu-Luo alliance. It was under the leadership of Ngala deputized by Masinde Muliro, however, the KANU remained more popular.

General elections to the Legislative Assembly brought the KANU as winner. However the party refused to make a government when Kenyatta was still in prison. The government was instead formed by the KADU in coalition with the KNP of Blundwell.

In 1961, Kenyatta was released and James Gichuru stood down for him as president of KANU. He dedicated his energy and time to uniting the KANU and KADU and partially succeeded when the two formed a coalition government in 1962. In 1962, KANU sent delegates to attend the 2nd Lancaster House conference at London.

The May 1963 elections brought out the KANU as victorious over KADU with 83 seats versus 41. Hence on 1s' June, in internal self-government was formed by KANU with Kenyatta as Prime Minister and on 13 December 1963 full independence was granted to Kenya.

Factors for the delay in Kenya's independence

In first place there was the deliberate failure by the British to train Africans for leadership. Secondly, the slow rate of constitutional and political development. Thirdly the use of Ghandism by KAU. This was the use of non violent methods of resistance that Mahatma Gandhi had used in India. Fourthly, the British intention to turn Kenya into a white man's country.fifthly, the banning of political parties e.g. KAU in 1953. Other factors were the harsh treatment of nationalistic figures for example the imprisonment of all top KAU leaders in 1953; the declaration of a state of emergency in 1952; the economic poverty of Africans due to lack of land; Disunity/Ethnicism amongst Kenyan tribes

In addition to the above, there was the military superiority of the British during the Mau Mau; the British policy of divide and rule whereby even the post Mau Mau parties were formed along regional lines; Disunity amongst nationalist leaders for example Tom Mboya of KANU disagreed with Ngala of KADU during the constitutional debates at Lancaster in London. Finaly, the presence of a large body of white settlers,

THE 1961 GENERAL ELECTIONS

In these elections KANU won 19 seats and KADU 11 but KANU refused to form Government unless Kenyatta was released, six weeks later Ronald Ngala was called upon to form a Government backed by KADU and NKP

In August 1961 Kenyatta was realised. Attempts to form a coalition. Government of KADU and KANU failed in October 1961. Kenyatta accepted the Presidency of KANU in the same month.

The second Lancaster House Constitutional Conference (Feb, 1962.

After the January, 1962 by - election Kenyatta entered the Legco in February, 1962. The new Colonial Secretary Reginald Maudling held the second conference to iron out the differences between KANU and KADU so as to plan an independence constitution. The conference issued a constitution which:

Changed the Legco to the National Assembly.

Enlarged the National Assembly to consist of:

• 117 Constituency - elected members.
• 41 Members of the Senate elected to represent administrative districts.
• 12 Specially elected members elected by the constituency members.
• Attorney General as an ex - officio member.

Provided that qualification for franchise depended on age and residence.

Provided that each house had to elect its Speaker.

Provided that the Prime Minister, Minister and their Deputies were to be drawn from the National Assembly.

Provided that all bills, other than financial bills, had to be agreed on both by the House of Representatives and the Senate before they could become laws.

KANU'S Supporters

The Kikuyu, Luo and the Kamba and the minorities in other communities. Advocates of Pan - Africanism., Socialism and of a unitary government Outside monetary and moral supporters.

KADU'S Supporters

Minority tribes from which its leaders emerged for example Ngala's Giryama and the Kalenjin of Taita Towett, M.J. Soreney, William Mungor and Daniel Arap Moi in the Rift Valley. 950,000 Abaluhya led by Masinde Muliro and Musa Amalemba. Most members who had found KADU'S policy more workable.

With this support it was expected that KADU could win the 1963 April elections. The supporters of KADU were surprised when KANU beat KADU in the preliminary elections of April 1963.

The 1963 May Elections

Fresh elections were held in May According to the second Lancaster House Constitution Conference. KANU won 83 seats while their opponents won only 41.

STEP TOWARDS KENYAN INDEPENDENCE.

Between 1919 - 1940, a number of quasi-political' associations were formed. These included the Kikuyu Central Association, the Young Kikuyu Association, the Young Kavirondo Association, the Ukamba Members' Association and the Taita Hills Association of 1938. These welfare Associations were the nursery beds of Kenyan nationalism. They mainly demanded land reforms.

The emergence of independent schools. Due to discrimination in the education field, the Kikuyu independent schools and Kikuyu Karinga Education Associations were formed. They aimed at giving standard education to Africans as opposed to European dilute education for Africans.

The emergence of independent Churches. A conflict arose between white missionaries and African clergy concerning the customs of circumcision and polygamy. Besides, Africans hated the way white missionaries discriminated against them. So, throughout the 1930s and 40s, a number of independent Churches were formed by Africans seeking for political independence via religious independence. Examples of these churches included the African Independent Pentecostal Church, the Dini Ya Yesu Kristo , Dina Ya Msambwa, the African Orthodox church. Some leaders of these churches were ex-service men for example. Bildad Kaggia.

The formation of KAU in 1944. The Kenya African Union was formed by Eliud Mathu and James Gichuru, Some historians say it was formed in 1946, The KAU was a moderate nationalist party which opposed colour bar, called for land, constitutional and political reforms.

Appointments of Africans to the Legco. In 1944, Eliud Mathu was appointed to be the first African representative on the colonial legislative Assembly. In 1946, the number was increased to two, then to four in 1948 and to five in 1951. This was a step forward towards independence.

The return of ex-service men. In 1945 and 1946, a number of Kenyan soldiers returned after the end of the 2nd world war and started influencing the course of Kenya's politics for example Bildad Kaggia returned in 1946 and both joined the KAU and the independent church movement in which he became an inspiring leader.

The return of Jomo Kenyatta to Kenya. Kenyatta who had been away for 15 years of study in England, returned to Kenya in 1946 and was soon made president of the KAU. Having witnessed Western democracy and having attended the 1945 Manchester conference, he gave the KAU new life and better organisation. However his methods of struggle were non-violent. He put his Headquarters at Githunguri Training College.

The formation of the Fourty group. In 1946, radical members of the KAU-mainly ex-service men formed a militant wing of the KAU- the Anake wa 40 or Fourty group which opted for violence as a means of obtaining independence. They were unhappy with KAU's gradualist approach and resorted to physical assault and intimidation. However it at first operated underground.

The visit of the colonial secretary to Kenya. In 1951, the British colonial secretary visited Kenya and met the leaders of the KAU. The KAU representatives presented the colonial secretary with a memorandum asking for equal African representation with whites and Asians on the Legco and an end to colour bar,

The outbreak of the Mau Mau rebellion. In 1952, the Fourty group formed the Kenya land and Freedom Army and started raiding the white men's farms, mutilating cattle, looting Asian shops. The land Freedom Army (Mau Mau) awakened colonialists who started addressing the needs of Kenyans.

Declaration of a state of emergence. In October 1952, Governor Sir Evelyn Baring declared a state of emergency which lasted up to 1960. This forced a number of Kikuyu to the bush so as to avoid being tortured in detention camps.

The banning of political parties. In 1953, the KAU was banned and its leaders Kaggia, Kenyatta, Fred Kubai, Paul Ngei and Kungu Karumba were imprisoned. This made the Trade Unions to step up and keep the nationalistic zeal. Trade Unions survived under Chege Kibachia, Torn Mboya , Makhan Singh and others,

Formation of a multi-racial executive. All along, Kenya's executive council was dominated by whites but in 1954, the first African, B.A. Ohanga was appointed minister for Community Development. This was a big political step towards independence

The Release of political parties. In 1955, political party activities were allowed once again but with restrictions for example they were to operate at provincial but not at a national level. Among the earliest parties were the Nairobi District African Congress formed by Argwings-Kodhek in 1956 and the Nairobi Peoples' Convention Party by Tom Mboya-

The 1957 elections to the Legco was a land mark in Kenya's path to independence. Six Africans , including Oginga Odinga for Central Nyanza, Tom Mboya for Nairobi Daniel Arap Moi for the rift Valley and Ronald Ngala for the coast constituency were elected and strongly advocated for reforms. In 1958, Alan Lennox Boyd increased the African membership on the Legco to 14. All the elected parliamentarians demanded for the release of Kenyatta and adopted a slogan "Uhuru na Kenyatta".

In 1959, African representatives on the Legco boycotted the Legislative council meetings so as to pressurize for the release of Kenyatta and the making of an independence constitution for Kenya. In 1959, the colonial government allowed national political parties to be formed. Hence in July and August 1959, the Kenya National Party and Kenya Independence Movement were formed October 1959, government announced the abolition of colour bar.

In 1960, the first constitutional conference was held at Lancaster House-London. It was chaired by the Liberal Macleod (the new colonial secretary) who lifted the ban on political parties and expanded African membership on both the Legco and executive.

Creation of new political parties. In March 1960, the KANU-Kenya African National Union was formed with James Gichuru as acting president- other wise its real president was the detained Kenyatta. Mboya Tom was its general secretary and Oginga Odinga its vice president. It was a Kikuyu - Luo party. The KADU (Kenya African Democratic Union) was also formed by other ethnic tribes. KADU was under "Ngala and was deputised by Masinde Muliro.

In February 1961, Legislative elections were held and won by KANU which got 67% of the votes as against 16% for KADU. KANU won 19 while KADU won 11 seats. However, KANU refused to form a government without Kenyatta. Therefore KADU and NKP (New Kenya Party of Michael Blundell) formed a coalition government. The NKP was a European party but sympathetic to the African cause.

In August 1961, Kenyatta was released from prison and made an effort to unite the KANU and KADU.

The 2^nd Lancaster House conference of March 1962 worked out modalities for Kenya's independence. It was chaired by Reginald Maudling and agreed on a Federal constitution. On 1st June 1963, Kenya was granted internal independence with Kenyatta as a Prime Minister . Finally on 12^th December i963, Kenya obtained full independence.

MZEE JOMO KENYATTA

Taa ya Kenya or Swahili for the 'Light of Kenya' was the man who brought the light of independence to Kenya. Indeed, he was a beacon, a rallying point for suffering Kenyans to fight for their rights, justice and freedom.

His brilliance gave strength and aspiration to people beyond the boundaries of Kenya, indeed beyond the shores of Africa.

Just as one light shines in total darkness and provides a rallying point, so did Kenyatta become the focus of the freedom fight for Kenya over half a century to dispel the darkness and injustice of colonialism.

Before matter can become light, it has to suffer the rigours of heat. So did Kenyatta suffer the rigorous of imprisonment to bring independence to Kenya. As the founding father of Kenya, and its undisputed leader, he came to be known as Mzee, Swahili for a respected elder.

There is Kenyatta the leader who united all races and tribes for the freedom struggle. Kenyatta the orator who held his listeners entranced.

Kenyatta the journalist who launched the first indigenous paper to voice his people's demands; Kenyatta the scholar who wrote the first serious study about his people; Kenyatta the teacher who initiated love for Kenyah culture and heritage; Kenyatta the farmer who loved his land and urged his people to return to it; Kenyatta the biographer who documented his 'suffering without bitterness'; Kenyatta the conservationist who protected Kenya's priceless fauna and flora; Kenyatta the father figure who showered love and affection on all; Kenyatta the democrat who upheld the democratic principle of one-man one-vote; Kenyatta the elder statesman who counseled other Heads of State, and finally Kenyatta the visionary who had a glorious image of Kenya's future and toiled to realize it.

Since ideas are more enduring than human bodies and sacrifices last longer than sermons thus the light that is Kenyatta burns on to illuminate the path of Kenya.

He was born in 1894 at Ngenda village, Gatundu in Kikuyu land. His father died before Kenyatta was Six years old, but his mother soon was remarried but also died after a short time. In his early life, he was initially called Johnston Kamau Wa'Ngengi.

He received some little education from Church of Scotland Mission School around Nairobi. After his education, he was employed in Nairobi as an Inspector of water Supply. But shortly he went for further studies abroad. It was at this time that he got his name Kenyatta which s a nickname for Kenya's light.

He started building his political career in 1921 when he became Secretary General of the East Africa Association which was banned. He later joined the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA).

In 1928, he became a Secretary General of KCA. He also started publishing a Kikuyu language newspaper called "Muiguithania" (the Unifier) which tried to appeal to the Africans especially the Kikuyu to unite against the Europeans who had occupied the Kenya Highlands belonging to the Kikuyu.

He also stood to defend the land question to the Hilton commission, which was finding out the real problems of the Kikuyu.

In 1929 he was a member of the Kikuyu delegation to England, which wanted Kenyans to establish their own schools for better education. The same delegation also presented the issue of land. Colonialists had grabbed all the fertile land from the natives.

While in London he opposed the formation of the proposed East African federation, which was which was to combine Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.

The Communists in Britain who hated imperialism supported him. They enabled Kenyatta to travel to Moscow, Berlin and Rome to get more ideas.

He joined Moscow University for a political Science course and later joined London School of Economics for specialized studies in Economics. In 1931, he wrote a Book called "Facing Mt. Kenya which was a detailed study of the Kikuyu customs and how the colonialist displaced their culture. During this time in Europe, he married an English lady, Edna Clarke as his third wife.

In 1932, Kenyatta forced the colonial government to offer compensation to the Kikuyu people whose land had been taken away especially in Kakamega.

He also published another pamphlet called "Kenya land of Conflict". In this pamphlet, he warned the whites of Kenya of revolution by the Kikuyu if they did not leave these occupied lands.

His contact with Soviet Union forced him to become a Communist. This is because the Communist opposed imperialism as an act of evil against humanity. Kenyatta got a lot of support eastern bloc.

It was also in this period that he and his colleagues Kwame Nkrumah and George Padmore formed the Pan African Federation and organised the 5th Pan African Conference, which took place at Manchester in 1945. Over 200 outspoken members attended this conference from colonies in Africa and the Diaspora. They passed resolutions to work for independence.

In 1946 Kenyatta returned to Kenya to put the Manchester resolutions into action. He became president of the Kenya African Union in 1946.

Under his leadership, he modeled up the KAU Party and its members and numbers grew overwhelmingly so that his meeting could not be attended by less than 30,000 people.

He was appointed Principal of a Teacher Training College near Nairobi, but because of his growing popularity in politics, he was sacked from office by the colonial government.

The Mau Mau uprising sparked off in 1950 and the Colonial government blamed him. He was arrested, found guilty and was deported to a prison in Lodwar in extreme Northern Kenya where he was supposed to serve 7 years' sentence. After a serious campaign by the members of the Legco for Kenyatta's release, the colonial government released him in 1959 but restricted him to a small village (house arrest).

In 1960, KANU was formed and Kenyatta was elected president when he was in prison. Its Interim chairman J Gichuru refused to form government unless Kenyatta was fully out.

In 1962, Kenyatta was released to take part in London conference and negotiated constitutional terms leading to Kenya's independence. He won the general elections held in May 1963. When independence was given on December 12, 1963 Kenya became Kenya's Prime minister and later President.

Because of the need to rule a united Kenya, Kenyatta declared Kenya a single party state. His Vice president Oginga Odinga later opposed this in 1966.

He participated in the formation of the East African Community together with his fellow presidents of the region.

He ruled Kenya and led to its development until 1978 when he died in sleep. His Vice President, Daniel Arap Moi, replaced him. One of late Kenyatta's prominent sons Uhuru Kenyatta was preferred by Moi as a suitable replacement for him after retirement in 2002 but the Kenyans did not vote for him for obvious reasons though he remains chairman of KANU party.

Dedan Kimathi

Dedan Kimathi was the high priest of the Mau Mau movement, and the mention of his name spread fear among the settler community. He was born in Karonaini among the Kikuyu in Kenya. He was a son of Mzee Wachiuri.

After his school education, Kimathi became a teacher at Karonaini Independent School. From there he became an actor and director of Gichami theatre group. This made him very popular and well known in Kenya.

At the height of the ongoing struggle for independence, he commanded thousands of fighters along the Aberdares. Kimathi became a cultic figure and his fame spread like bushfire.

He emerged as powerful revolutionary leader of the Nyandarua fighters against the colonial masters. This rebellion, which later came to be known as Mau Mau, started in 1952. Most fighters were in the bush. Kimathi was one of the most feared fighters of the time. He also moved to all camps trying to unify all fighters who had earlier become divided on matters of policy.

He set up a "Resistance Council" in the forests composed of leaders of different Mau Mau camps to plan for strategies of defeating colonialists. Because the British used derogatory expressions to describe the Mau Mau as a tribal and backward group of bandits, Kimathi played a very important role to reverse this. He went a head to recruit fighters from different tribes in Kenya.

From 1952, the Mau Mau who were fighting from Nyandarua forest went a head to raid police stations, attacked homes of the Europeans and their African collaborators.

In March Kimathi and his rebels raided Naivasha police, captured large quantities of ammunition. They were also able to release 178 prisoners. These prisoners later joined the fighter.

In reaction the colonial government in Kenya used a combined force of police and the army that rounded up Africans in and around Nairobi. The programme was called "Operation Anvil".

An amount of shs. 10,000 reward was placed for whoever found him. He was eventually captured in October, 1956. Many fighters in the Mau Mau group were arrested, tried and punished heavily. Some were sentenced to death. He was hanged in the early hours of February 18, 1957, after being tried and convicted under the Emergency Regulations promulgated by the colonial government.

Chief Justice Sir Kenneth O'Connor, who presided over the trial of Kimathi, found the Mau Mau leader guilty of possession of a revolver and six rounds of ammunition, an offence that carried a death sentence and consequently sentenced him to hang.

He was sentenced to death by hanging and his remains are buried in an unmarked grave at the Kamiti Maximum Security Prison. According to Joseph Karimi, "after the hanging of Kimathi at Kamiti Maximum Prison in Nairobi, his body was taken away immediately for burial in mass grave at Langata"12

Tom Mboya

Tom, one of the brightest and most powerful trade union leaders, came from humble Luo parentage in the Nyanza Province in 1930. Political awakening was strong both with the Central Province and the Nyanza Province. From such lowly position in life, Tom gradually rose by his intelligence and hard work and was later on considered as promising politician of the future.

He was educated at Catholic Mission Schools, but was forced to leave before completing his studies.

In order to stem the rising tide of political awareness among the Africans, the government banned the African National Union in 1953 and two of its prominent leaders were arrested leaving a gap in the African political organisation. This gap was filled by the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions. Tom became its General Secretary.

After returning from his study - tour in the U.K, Tom realised the danger in government move of permitting political organisation of district level. He never believed in district level organisations and as such never entertained tribal divisions. Elections of African Members to the Legco took place in 1957 and Tom emerged victorious. He advocated for constitutional reforms.

Realising a split in the Nairobi District African Congress, Tom formed his party which he called Nairobi People's Convention Party - NPCP with the slogan " Forward ever, backward never".

In the Legco, Tom pressed for more African representatives. He believed that Kenya Constitution should be based ion the Ghana Model and there should be "Unclaimed "democracy in Kenya. He refused to accept any ministerial post in the government. He was bold enough to criticise those Africans who became candidates for special seats. He was taken to court but was later set free following boycotts staged by his party. He pressed hard for the release of Jomo Kenyatta, "The Father of Kenya" both inside the Legco and outside because he knew that there would be no political stability in the country without Mr. Kenyatta's leadership. He never allowed some Luo leaders to form their own political party; because he knew that would be a divide and rule trick for the foreigners to rule Kenya.

According to the Late Jomo Kenyatta "Had it not been for his (Tom's) efforts and personal sacrifices, Kenya's independence could have been hampered or seriously compromised. After Kenya's independence Tom Mboya was appointed Minister of Justice and Constitutional Affairs in Kenyatta's government in 1963. He was a great orator who kept his audience spell - bounded. He was famous not only in Kenya but also in Britain for his political judgement and maturity. Unfortunately, he was killed in 1969 by an assassin in broad daylight. It was a great loss to the country.

Harry Thuku

Harry Thuku was born in Kiambu, educated at mission schools and then employed by the colonial government. In 1921, he founded the Young Kikuyu Association to protest against alienation of land, forced labour, taxation, low wages and the Kipande laws. In 1922 he was arrested after being declared 'dangerous to peace and good order' and was detained for nine years. After his release he joined KAU (Kenya African Union) in 1944 and later joined KANU (Kenya African National Union) in 1960. He died in 1970.

---

13 Rosberg, C.G. Jnr and Nottingham, The Myth of 'Mau Mau': Nationalism in Kenya, East African Publishing House, Pages 212-14

12 Joseph Karimi: Mystery of Mau Mau hero's secret burial in The East Africa Newspaper Dec 10-16,2001.