Neo-colonialism

One of the factors that frequently causes civil coups in Africa is foreign interference in African affairs by imperialists through neo-colonialism tendencies. These imperialists from the west manipulate the African armies so that they do away with regimes that they do not want. For example the C.I.A (Central Intelligence Agency) of America influenced the overthrow of Nkurumah because he did not work towards the interests of the U.S.A and other capitalistic countries. In Uganda the British and the Israelites supported Amin to overthrow Obote in 1971 because the latter had tried to introduce communism in the country through the common man's charter. At the Chogm of 1971 in Singapore, the Brotish Prime Minister Edward Heath was already aware of the the coup and its success while Obote was not.

At the conference, when Obote described Heath's policy as racialist, Heath tactfully remarked: "I wonder how many of you will be allowed to return to your own countries from this conference." The coup was absolutely successful, and, as Edward Heath had prophesied, Obote took nine long years to get back to Uganda.

Neo colonial tendencies in Africa have contributed to coups since independence. Since the economies of the African states have been controlled and heavily exploited by foreign governments or firms thereby leaving the masses in poverty for example since independence in Libya 1951 - 1969; King Idris had encouraged foreign investment in the Oil industry which Muamah Gadhafi opposed. Idris also allowed U.S.A military bases in Libya that only tantamount into the coup of 1969. In Uganda, the central domination of the economy that was in the state of Neo - colonialism, which only led to Obote's overthrow by 1971 by Amin partly due to effects of the common man's charter and move to the left strategy.

Desire by the army to share the national cake due to military discontent: The desire by the army to have a share of the resources of African states has in many countries caused coups where civilian regimes are overthrown for example in Ethiopia, Emperor HailleSelassie was accused of not giving better pay and incentives to the army therefore felt cheated especially when the army realised that civil servants were enjoying at the expense of the soldiers.

Corrupt politicians and nepotism

Corrupt politicians have sometimes instigated civil coups where the military desires to liberate the country and intervene in politics as patrons. In most cases the abuse of power by politicians coupled with malpractices have on several occasions led to coups for example some leaders rig or refuse to hold elections or they ignore the established institutions like the constitution, they manipulate the courts of law or parliaments or they bribe and embezzle to keep themselves in power.

The inefficiency of the civilian government, coupled with corruption and mal administration has been a common factor. After independence, the people expected their own governments to be more familiar with their problems and be able to find solutions to them. These have always angered the army and finally leading to coups in Africa for example in 1960 Nkurumah was removed from power in Ghana against that background. Obote in 1985 just as in 1971 was removed from power on the same grounds.

Tribal and ethnic sentiments

Tribal and ethnic sentiments (regionalism and ethnicism): Tribal and ethnic sentiments on the African continent have also caused civil coups in Africa. On a number of occassions soldiers have intervened after sensing that interests of ethnic groups are being elevated at the expenses of the others. Interests of the Langi at the expense of the Acholi and it was not suprising that the Acholi overthrowing civilian leaders because they are not of their tribe yet they would like to see their tribesmen in leadership. Amin overthrew Obote in 1971 yet Obote was a Langi.

In Congo (Zaire) it is said that Mobutu's coup was launched on grounds that he wanted to see minority tribes tevated into power. Likewise in Nigeria, the Ibo engineered the January coup against the Hausa dominated ethnic group given the economic imbalance between the north and the south. .

Frequent breakdown of law and order (lawlessness): in some cases coups have been caused by the frequent breakdown of laws and order in some countries. For example in the congo-Leopoldville after indepedence these followed chaos between Kasavubu, the President and Patrice Lumumba, the prime Minister. At the end of it all Lumumba was killed but this did not end lawlessness. The army got scared and it lost confidence in the civillian rule and as result Mobutu was instigated to overthrow Kasavubu in 1965, so it was in Ethiopia in 1974; Thus the breakdown law-and Order forces the Army to enter into politics.

Redundacy in the army

Sometimes coups and military interventions in African politics have been caused by redundacy in the army where the army after reflecting on the existing affairs they also desire to find a role they can play in the existing government. This has been so because they are unproductive and iddle most of the time. Perhaps this has explained putting the army into use by getting it involved in the agricultural industry. Nasser Saddat carried out a coup in 1952 to occupy themselves, In 1971 Obote did the same agajnst Amin in Uganda.

Ideological differences

Coups have also been due to ideological differences among the politicians which have always bred misunderstandings and disunity thus culminating into coups. In Ghana for example Nkurumah was accused of swaying the country to the socialist bloc, in Uganda, Obote was overthrown by Amin yet the latter claimed that Obote was moving towards the left by declaring the common man's charter. In Ethiopia Haillle Selassie was a socialist, while Mengistu was capitalistic, and in Ghana Nkurumah a communist had his army trained by western countries and so western influence fighting. Due to these differences the army came in leading to a coup.

Bad political and economic policies

Some coups have been always due to poor or bad economic policies undertaken by leaders which have always been deemed stressful or unbearable thereby leading to coups. Some of these economic policies include introducing high taxes, far example Amin, who accused Obote for raising taxes. In Sudan Jaffer Niemeiri was overthrown because he removed food subsidies on food (maize). Coups in Libya and Ghana are also good examples which came as result of increased prices for people's produce among others making people frustrated, miserable leading to overthrow of their governments.

Dictatorship

Dictatorial regimes in Africa by civilian leaders has also caused military intervention. The army has sometimes claimed that human rights have been abused and consequently they look at themselves as the only solution to oppressive and dictatorial regimes for example Nkrumah's regime was overthrown because he tried to do away with the C.C.P a dominant party in Ghanaian politics, In Uganda Obote was overthrown because in his common man's charter he wanted to elevate U.P.C party over the rest. Other examples of leaders who had over stayed in power include king Idris who had stayed in power since 1951 without much political reforms up to 1969 when Ghadafi overthrew him. and King Farouk of Egypt Since 1936 -1952 when he was overthrown by Nasser among others.

Greed and thirst for power

Greed for power by some soldiers has on number of occasions instigated military intervention and coups in Africa. For example the overthrows of Sankara in BurkinaFasso by Compaouri was partly instigated by greed for power. It is also possible that Amin's coup of 1971 was engineered by his greed for power so were coups in Congo in 1965, in Liberia 1985 by Sergeant Doe, Togo among others.

Inadequate preparation for independence

It should be noted that the inadequate preparation for independence by the colonial powers which left a political vacuum was responsible for the occurrence of coups in Africa. This and the misuse of western European models of governments in the names of party politics rather than mobilization for national needs are paramount in the cause for military coups. It should also be noted that the colonial masters either neglected nationalist's demand for independence and the height of radical nationalism.

Independence was granted pre-maturely. Colonial masters therefore provided African constitutions that were characterized by ethnic interests rather than national interests in order to rule their former colonies. The divide and rule policy continued undermining National Unity for example in Congo, Belgians left behind constitutional structures that perpetuated ethnic Nationalism especially in the civil service. In Uganda and Nigeria constitutions suffocated minority interests that set up political unrests, invited the army to restore law and order thus in Congo 1965 Coup, Nigeria 1966 and the Uganda 1971. .

Lack of Spy Net Work

Lack of the intelligence network in Africa has made it easy for physical take over of legitimate governments by the military. Amin and Mobutu had all the mistakes but they were saved by their strong spy networks.

Threats to the position of military

Sometimes coups erupt due to the fact that soldiers' are threatened by the existing military government. Amin for example overthrew Obote because he was accused by the latter that he masterminded the death of Brigadier Okaya who was a Langi. So in order to safeguard his own life as well as preventing Obote's retaliation he staged the 1971 coup and Obote was overthrown. General service unit under Akena Adoko, G.S.U was more influential to the president than any other military units that Amin headed of chief of military staff.

Political interference in duties of the army. It was seen as gross interference of the very fibre that holds the military together professionalism. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana probably contributed to his own downfall by his undue meddling in the professional integrity of his army both at home and abroad. A case in point, was when President Nkrumah made the decision to send Ghanaians to the Congo in 1960 as part of the UN contingent. On several occasions Nkrumah issued his own instructions to the Ghana contingent, and in the process contradicting what the United Nations Command had already issued. This practice frustrated the Ghanaian soldiers who saw it as an unnecessary intrusion of their professional responsibilities.

To politicians therefore, the military had no positive role in the process of the freedom struggle and soldiers did not therefore need to be rewarded or accorded any special considerations. It is not surprising as a result, that most African leaders preferred to retain expatriate officers to go on commanding predominantly African troops. The Africanisation process was given priority in the areas of civil administration. Africans took over senior civil servant posts that were previously held by Europeans.

This initial failure to Africanize the command hierarchy in the Armed Forces was later to become a major area for concern and a source of military grievances that were to turn catastrophic in most newly independent African nations. In the entire tropical Africa it was only the Sudan that, as at the time of independence, had a fair number of indigenous commissioned officers. In the Sudan, the British had been training local officers since 1918

Economic crisis.

Economic crisis in Africa have also contributed to the frequent coups in Africa. The economy had been declining to the extent that it had caused dissatisfaction among members. This then results into riots of uprisings giving the justification for the army to intervene. Such economic problems have included high rates of sky rocketing inflation, low wages, unemployment, high taxes and famine among others.

This has been greatly as a result of weakness and instability of African economies and as such creating room for coups to take place. The weakness of the social - economies particularly due to the dependence on the outside markets there is economic decline in African countries. However soldiers and the public may not realize this but instead think that politicians are misunderstanding and misusing the country's resources for example the case of Obote and the economic crisis in 1969, that of Nkrumah whose economy declined when the world market prices for cocoa fell. Then that of Emperor Haille Selassie whose economy declined when world market prices for cocoa fell. Then that of Haille Selassie whose economy declined as a result of an international economic depression and the oil crisis of 1963. All these leaders were overthrown one after another.

Personal desires

Some coups in Africa have come as result of personal desire by some army men desiring to enrich themselves as the case might be in the case of politicians. Most of the African people are poor and when one of them gets into power, they in short period become extremely rich. They have therefore have therefore created an impression that coming into power is a big answer to the end of poverty. This has made other people to become ambitious especially the soldiers who end up overthrowing civilian governments hence coups.
More still, the rise of peasant and conservative leaders in Africa has led to coups. These leaders like Obote in Uganda, Nkrumah in Ghana, Idris in Libya accumulate economic power and influence through corruption. They are easily tempted to use state resources for personal gains. Such plunders created bitterness amongst the army officers and elite politicians who are desperate to form governments to organize coups in Africa.

The gun monopoly by the army influences their decission to carry out coups: The relative ease to the gun by the army has contributed to the frequent coups in Africa. The army is said to posses monopoly of western military technologies and their direct access in influenced coups to take place in practice. In most cases protection by way of arming themselves but rather the army remains the only viable structure of the country in ensuring security of civilian governments.

The demonstration effect

Military coups have also occurred in Africa due to the demonstration effect. The success of one military coup in the country has tended to inspire Army officers in another country to carry out coups. For instance after the 1963 Togo coup, a series of coups in Africa were realized in countries like Dahomey, Ghana 1966, Nigeria between 1966 -1975, Uganda 1971, Chad 1975 and that of the 1962 coup in Egypt influenced the reaction of coups given that coups have been successful in one country, why not us. Many coups in Africa named above were inspired by Nasser's coup in Egypt in 1952.

Abuse of office by civilian leaders

Civilian leaders who tend to be authoritarian have always culminated into military coups in Africa. It is argued that civilian leaders tend to abuse their office by assuming all constitutional powers and even beyond the limits which in turn exposed such leaders as being above the law. This situation angers the army for example in Ghana, the army argued that "the aim oftheun constitutional military action we took is to regain freedom and Democracy. Nkrumah ruled Ghana with his C.P.P with no opposition all of which tan amounted to his downfall.

Failure of government to resolve internal disorders peacefully like civil wars: Military coups have also been carried out due to failure of civilian governments to peacefully resolve internal disorders like civil wars , for example the overthrow of Francois Tombalbuye in Chad in 1975 by Felix Malloum who had failed to establish National Unity between Moslems in the North and the Christian Southerners involve in an armed struggle between 1965 -1974. Between 1969 -1985, coups and counter coups in Sudan emerged as a result of the continued hostility between the north and the South conflict basically the SPLA's war of Liberation (Secession) against the Khartoum government, the overthrow of Col. Jaffer Niemeri and Sadiq -AI-Mahed (1985)

Poor living and working conditions of the army

Failure by the Civilian leaders to uplift the living and working standards of the army has always provoked ambitious military officers to overthrow civilian governments so as to satisfy their cause and promote their interests. For instance in Ethiopia, Emperor Haille Sellassie was accused of neglecting the welfare of the army which only provoked the military overthrow in 1974 so as to justify their proper housing, had poor pay, poor sanitation. In Ghana, soldiery lacked boots, uniforms, drugs, lacked serviceable vehicles among others yet serving both foreign and home interests of Nkrumah who had refused to dress them.

Poor military structures and the formation of an army with in an army: The army structures account for the coups in Africa for example in Uganda Obote's Ethnic associates were privileged thus armed with modern Arms, good feeding and sanitation barracks, entitled to high Langis. This has been worsened by civilian leaders' establishment of an Army for example in Uganda, Obote set up two paramilitary structures like the special force and the G.S.U's spying on the army thereby culminating into his overthrow by 1971. In Ghana the soldiers resented Nkrumah's own guard Regiment (POGR) which culminated into the 1966 coup.

Personal rivalries among the leaders

Military coups are also easily ushered in because of personal rivalries. This has mainly been due to the army for example senior Army officers from their commands as demonstrated in Uganda in three ways thus Administration's failure to answer the mysterious death of Obote's Authoritarian decisions of ignoring Amin. All this humiliated Amin whose image as chief of staff of the armed forces had been tarnished thereby making the 1971 military coup inevitable

Demotion of senior army officials

This can be exemplified by Ghana where Nkrumah neglected and relegated senior officials and replaced them with his own favored people and so in Uganda of Obote.

Demoralisation of the police - army and any other forces: The demoralization of the Police-army and any other forces is a cause of coups in Africa for example in Somalia 1969, Libya 1969, 1974 in Ethiopia coup, 1952 coup in Egypt among others. When the government over interferes with the coercive organs for example in Ghana eight (8) police officers were demaralised, army detained among others culminating into coups.

Extravagancy and economic mismanagement

Sometimes leaders become too prestigious with government funds, excessively spend on trips , leisure among others for example Haille Selassie was extravagant, Nkrumah undertook ambitious plans in the Voltadam among others. Some leaders do bank in foreign banks e.g. Nkrumah banked in Swiss bank but refused other Ghanaians to do so.
Rigging of elections and failure to organise elections

Coups in Africa have been caused by tendencies leaders who get involved in rigging of elections and failure to organize elections for example Nkrumah was accused of manipulating elections, Obote was accused of failure to organize any democratic elections among others. And they all had to overthrown by the impatient masses led by the army. The army has often toppled leaders who want to cling on power for the rest of their life as a means of economical survival and a way of escaping criminal charges against them.

Weakness of governments in africa

Coups in Africa are a result of weak governments in place for example King Farouk's government was weak, Idris' government was also weak, the government of Kasavubu among others was too weak thereby culminating into coups in their respective countries as a step towards strong governments. In Libya Ghadafi put up one.

Absence of national leadres from their countries at the time of coups

Coups in Africa are always inspired due to absence form office by the leaders for example Somalia and Ugandan leaders at the time of coup they were in exile for example Obote was toppled while in Singapore, Nkrumah was in Indo-china, Idris was toppled while in Turkey, Azikiwe of Nigeria was in London for treatment, Burundi attempted coup of 2001 was due to Buyoya's visit to Gabon among others.

Use of the army to achieve one's selfish ends

For example in Ghana, Nkrumah was questioned when he took the Ghana forces to Congo. General Africa a senior official in the army remarked that, could it be that we had been military intervention in the army.

General backwardness in the country: For example in Libya, Ethiopia, Togo, Egypt, Nigeria among others generally people were faced with poverty, scarcity, unemployment, inflation among others. Therefore the desire to reform the country's social - political and economic set up such that a country gets rid of backwardness led to coups. In Libya oil was mined and sold for the benefit of non Libyans.

Detention without trial. Detention without trial, massive arrests of the civilians; force the army to step into politics for example in Uganda, in Ghana, Nkrumah started the preventive detention bill to imprison suspects for the six years among others.

Free circulation of western literature: coups in Africa are due to free circulation of western literature especially from U.S.A and U.S.S.R which teach much about militarism and how militarism can serve as a solution to the social, economic and political problems in a country. Basing on this Ghadafi overthrew Idris, Amin overthrew Obote , Mengistu overthrew Haille Salassie.

Desire to end monachial rule in the era of independence in Africa: Coups in Africa are due to desire toendmonarchial rule in the era of independent Africa for example Nasser wanted to end monarchialism and it's related autocracy; Libya coup was to overthrow Idris' royal Nobility and it's attendant privileges among others.

Colonial legacy: Colonial legacy has led to a numerous coups in Africa . This is because colonial legacy left behind divisionism, promoted ethnicity among others. This could be evident in Nigeria among other examples.

The reliance on the army by civilian leaders: Some civilian leaders over rely on the army and may be trusting them and using them for their own selfish ends which may increase his popularity. For example Nkrumah took his army to fight in Katanga crisis in 1960-1965. Nkrumah was overthrown in 1966. Obote used his army to suppress the Kabaka in 1966, hence the coup.

Abrogation of constitutions by leaders: Coups in Africa have been caused by civilian leaders who do abrogate constitutions which constitutions may have been made by the people themselves and also there are too much constitutional amendments under the influence and in favour of the leader in power hence a coup. For example Nkrumah abrogated the constitution of Ghana in 1965 hence the coup of 1966 and Obote did the same in 1967 hence the coup of 1971.

Political rivalry and personal rivalry amongst the political leaders have caused military coups in Africa. This is common where a civilian regime has tried to undermine the position of the army Algeria 1965, Ghana 1966 the army fought to protect themselves from the presidential guard, Togo 1967, Chad 1975, Uganda 1971 Amin coup. Another source of conflict is the personnel rivalry between the soldier and the civilian within the ruling ethnic group. 1966 coup in Burundi and 1966 coup in Central Africa Republic. The coup may be formed to prevent the consolidation of a newly formed presidential security force Ghana 1966, Uganda 1971. This is done to prevent the challenges that would ensure thereafter. 1974 Ethiopia, 1989 Sudan.

Religious rivalry mainly in Nigeria lead to 1966 January coup: The is dominated by Moslems and since they are highly populated, some coups have taken place with the interest of p[rotecting islam. The Arab north and Christian south in Sudan as early as 1958,1969, 1971 resent 1989 Bashir coup based on religion, 1971 coup partly religious.

The murder of Lumumba in Congo set in motion a momentous precedent wave of coups across Africa. When Mabuto overthrew the elected government the military officers from Ghana and Nigeria serving in Congo began to think of their decisive role as the army in politics. So in 1966 they organized coups in Nigeria and Ghana respectively. Almost one following the other in the same year. The one of Nigeria was in 1966 January, that of Ghana 1966 February.

Historical factors equally prepared Africa for coups. Initially the colonialists had used African soldiers to suppress activities of the Nationalist like Nkrumah of Ghana. So when he took over power such friction continued leading to military coups. The World Wars in Africa partly brought Africans like Amin from Uganda, Habyarimana from Rwanda, Bokosa central Africa together. Exposed them to aggressive military training such that even after Independence they still believed in violence as a means to change governments as they had done in Europe to defeat fascism and Nazism. These too came to power through military coup. Thus leading to coups in Africa.

Some historians have argued that the occurance of military coups in Africa is a repetition of colonial history. In colonial history its argued that rise and fall from power was determined by military muscle so the same is being repeated by ambitious leaders to access state control in Africa.

The unfavourable colonial constitutions that were imposed on Africans prepared them for military coups. In Uganda for example after the Mau Mau disaster in Kenya. Britain hurriedly prepared a constitution for Uganda that favoured Buganda and was against other areas. Obote moved against Buganda cultural interest was overthrown by a coup. Obote was overthrown partly due to his contribution in the exiling of Muteesa II in 1966 to London where he died in 1969. When Amin emerged in 1971 the Baganda welcomed him.

The misuse of western European models of government and the putting of emphasis on party politics, rather than mobilizing for national needs.

Lack of channels to air out grievances or peaceful change of government due to the dictatorial nature of the rulers. Some governments never allow people to criticize them so they close radio stations and newspapers, which are critical.

Use of the army in solving the problems, which would have been solved by the civilians through dialogue. In Uganda since Obote involved the army in solving the 1966 crises, the army realised that it was possible to do the same to Obote.