Colonization: European expeditions

Bartolomeu Dias rounding the Cape of Good Hope.

Although the Portuguese basked in the nautical achievement of successfully navigating the cape, they showed little interest in colonization. The area's fierce weather and rocky shoreline posed a threat to their ships, and many of their attempts to trade with the local Khoikhoi ended in conflict. The Portuguese found the Mozambican coast more attractive, with appealing bays to use as waystations, prawns, and links to gold ore in the interior.

The Portuguese had little competition in the region until the late 16th century, when the English and Dutch began to challenge them along their trade routes. Stops at the continent's southern tip increased, and the cape became a regular stopover for scurvy-ridden crews. In 1647, a Dutch vessel was wrecked in the present-day Table Bay at Cape Town. The marooned crew, the first Europeans to attempt settlement in the area, built a fort and stayed for a year until they were rescued. Shortly thereafter, the Dutch East India Company (in the Dutch of the day: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC) decided to establish a permanent settlement. The VOC, one of the major European trading houses sailing the spice route to the East, had no intention of colonizing the area, instead wanting only to establish a secure base camp where passing ships could shelter, and where hungry sailors could stock up on fresh supplies of meat, fruit, and vegetables. To this end, a small VOC expedition under the command of Jan van Riebeeck reached Table Bay on April 6, 1652.

Arrival of the Dutch

Painting of an account of the arrival of Jan van Riebeeck, by Charles Bell.

While the new settlement traded out of necessity with the neighbouring Khoikhoi, one could hardly describe the relationship as friendly, and the authorities made deliberate attempts to restrict contact. Partly as a consequence, VOC employees found themselves faced with a labour shortage. To remedy this, they released a small number of Dutch from their contracts and permitted them to establish farms, with which they would supply the VOC settlement from their harvests. This arrangement proved highly successful, producing abundant supplies of fruit, vegetables, wheat, and wine; they later raised livestock. The small initial group of free burghers, as these farmers were known, steadily increased and began to expand their farms further north and east into the territory of the Khoikhoi.

The majority of burghers had Dutch ancestry and belonged to the Calvinist Reformed Church of the Netherlands, but there were also numerous Germans as well as some Scandinavians. In 1688 the Dutch and the Germans were joined by the French Huguenots, also Calvinists, who were fleeing religious persecution under King Louis XIV.

In addition to establishing the free burgher system, van Riebeeck and the VOC also began to import large numbers of slaves, primarily from MadagascarIndonesia. These slaves often married Dutch settlers, and their descendants became known as the Cape Coloureds and the Cape Malays. A significant number of the offspring from the White and slave unions were absorbed into the local proto Afrikaans speaking White population. With this additional labour, the areas occupied by the VOC expanded further to the north and east, with inevitable clashes with the Khoikhoi. The newcomers drove the beleaguered Khoikhoi from their traditional lands, decimated them with introduced diseases, and destroyed them with superior weapons when they fought back, which they did in a number of major wars and with guerrilla resistance movements which continued into the 19th century. Most survivors were left with no option but to work for the Europeans in an exploitative arrangement that differed little from slavery. Over time, the Khoisan, their European overseers, and the imported slaves mixed, with the offspring of these unions forming the basis for today's Coloured population. and

The best-known Khoikhoi groups included the Griqua, who had originally lived on the western coast between St Helena Bay and the Cederberg Range. In the late 18th century, they managed to acquire guns and horses and began trekking northeast. En route other groups of Khoisan, Coloureds, and even white adventurers joined them, and they rapidly gained a reputation as a formidable military force. Ultimately, the Griquas reached the Highveld around present-day Kimberley, where they carved out territory that came to be known as Griqualand.

Burgher expansion

An account of the first trekboers.

As the burghers, too, continued to expand into the rugged hinterlands of the north and east, many began to take up a semi-nomadic pastoralist lifestyle, in some ways not far removed from that of the Khoikhoi they displaced. In addition to its herds, a family might have a wagon, a tent, a Bible, and a few guns. As they became more settled, they would build a mud-walled cottage, frequently located, by choice, days of travel from the nearest European. These were the first of the Trekboers (Wandering Farmers, later shortened to Boers), completely independent of official controls, extraordinarily self-sufficient, and isolated. Their harsh lifestyle produced individualists who were well aquainted with the land. Like many pioneers with Christian backgrounds, the burghers attempted to live their lives based on teachings from the Bible.

i) Why was table bay important for the Dutch?

1. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to enter South Africa. Though they left it and went Northwards.

2. The Dutch appeared in South Africa in the 17th century.

Why did the Dutch settle in South Africa?

1. The Portuguese success in the far East trade attracted the Dutch.

2. The Dutch in 1602 founded the Dutch East Indian company (DEICO).

3. From 1647, DEICO saw a need of establishing a calling station as a resting place for sailors.

4. In 1647 the ship called Hearleem got wrecked near the cape making an accidental landing of the Dutch.

5. The wrecked crew realised that the cape was mid way Europe and Asia and would simplify trade.

6. They wanted to establish a work shop for repairing and refueling their ships.

7. Table bay cape would provide fresh food and water to the Dutch sailors.

8. They wanted to establish medical centres to treat the sick sailors.

9. The cape had nice climate and fertile soils for fruit growing which would reduce scurvy deaths

10. St. Hellena which used to supply them with meat, fruits was exhausted / no longer doing so.

11. The cape was strategically located and its control meant controlling the eastern trade.

12. The favourable reports given by the survivors of Hearlem encouraged settlement.

13. DEICO wanted a resting centre for the sailors at Table bay.

14. The courage of Jan Van Riebeck who offered to lead the first settlers in 1652.

15. Table Bay would enable them barter with the Khoikhoi to get meat.

16. The cape had good harbors for the secure protection of their ships especially in Table Bay.

PROBLEMS FACED BY THE PIONEERS.

1. Jan Van Riebeck and other early settlers faced the following problems.

2. They were far away from their homeland hence suffered from homesickness.

3. They never understood the geographical and economic information of the area and hence failed to succeed in agriculture at first.

4. The majority of the settlers were ex-soldiers with little knowledge about agriculture and hence failed in this field.

5. They suffered from malnutrition and poor health because of the harsh South African climate.

6. Their housing conditions were very poor, leaking during the rainy seasons causing more illness.

7. The Khoisan constantly raided them creating insecurity.

8. They were usually weak and could not do a lot for themselves yet even labour was scarce.

9. They were few in number and hence had little impact around Table bay.

10. They did not have enough wives resorting to homosexuality.

11. There were no education facilities for their children.

12. There were no medical facilities for the sick.

13. They were restricted from transferring their land to their children on their death.

14. Arable land was not enough for all of them.

15. The company charged a high amount of money rent for land.

16. The company did not provide strong security against the natives.

17. The company restricted the settlers from selling to other high paying Europeans.

18. They were not to grow the profitable crops like Tobacco.

How They Attempted To Solve The Problems.

1. Intermarriage with Africans and importing orphaned girls from home reduced the problem of lack of wives.

2. The Dutch reformed church helped in putting up elementary schools to teach the settlers children.

3. Large water reservoirs were built to protect water during the dry seasons.

4. The company gave free land and released some men from their control in 1657.

5. 'Corrupt governors like Wilhem Adrian van Destel were dismissed from company service.

6. A large hospital was built in 1707 to cater for the health needs of the settlers.

7. Economic restrictions were relaxed and farmers sold to who ever they wanted.

8. Slaves were imported from Java and Madagascar to solve the labour demands.

9. From 1658 agricultural prices were slightly increased to boost farmers revenue.

10. The defense army boosted by Commander Simon Destel built a large defence castle.

11. In 1657 some settlers were freed from company control and told to open up their own farms.

12. Jan Van Riebeck expanded the settlement and brought more land under the company.

13. The settlers were allowed to raid Africans and enslave them.

14. Local militias were recruited and armed to provide defence for the villages.

How the Dutch established their colony in South Africa.

1. The initial establishment came from the accidental wreckage of the ship Harleem in 1647.

2. The crew got marooned for six months and experienced a '' suitable climate for vegetable growing and trade.

3. On their return to Netherlands the crew gave favourable reports to DEICO.

4. In 1652 Jan van Riebeck led the first official landing.

5. Jan's group came in three ships with 130 people settling along the Liesbeck river.

6. Van put up a wooden, fort as headquarters, wooden houses etc to serve as a refreshing station.

7. Van's group also grew vegetables fruits and also supplied the Dutch sailors with fresh meat.

8. In 1657, the company released nine soldiers and allowed them to start colonisation.

9. These nine men were each given 13 V-2 acres of free land along Liesbeck valley but they were to sell their produce to 'the company.

10. The nine soldiers were not to pay taxes for 12 years.

11. Later in 1668, two hundred French Protestants known as Huegnots were allowed at the cape.

12. By 1685, the Colony had 150 families.

13. By 1700, the colonists at the cape were 1300;

14. 14. From 1685, farmers started moving away from the cape because the company's policies'had ruined them.

15. They established new settlements like Stellonbosch in 1680s and De-pearl in 1687.

16. Later the colony expanded East wards toward river fish.

17. By 1795 the colony had over 1500 settlers colonists.

18. By 1795 the colony included districts like Stellenbosch, Swollen dam, Graaf Reinet and the cape.

How Deico governed/ administered or ruled the cape.

1. The cape was governed in the interest of the DEICO Company and had four main instruments of power i.e. the council of policy, council of defence, the council of justice and Dutch reformed church.

2. The governor was the head of the company and administration and was assisted by the council of policy.

3. The council was made up of seventeen people which included seven senior officials.

4. The council was responsible for administration of the cape and made laws for the settlers.

5. The council was the highest executive and legislation authority.

6. The council of policy did not have any settler as a representative.

7. There was the council of justice, which acted as the main court of appeal, and the council of policy appointed its members.

8. Each district had a paid magistrate who presided over local courts in the district and attended to all interests of the company.

9. The magistrates were not independent and were ignorant of the legal procedures to the extent that sometimes they never knew which laws were being broken.

10. The chief of police (Fiscal) acted as a prosecutor and was to check the governor though he proved worse than him in corruption.

11. The defence council had Boer commando units to defend the coast from foreign attacks.

12. The settlers formed burgher local military units to protect the settlers internally especially from African raids.

13. The Dutch reformed church controlled the cultural and political life of the settlers. It performed ceremonies of baptism and confirmation and supported the claim that Africans were inferior to the whites.

14. It controlled literacy and Education and acted as a cultural bond and uniting factor among the settlers.

15. The company lacked an official defence policy for the farmers against the Bantu resulting in to the 1795 revolt in Graaf Reinet.

16. By 1662, the company employed 120 officers and by 1794 they were 2093 officers.

EXPANSION OF THE COLONY

How did the Boers expand their Dutch cape colony up to Fish River by 1795.

1. The Dutch cape colony was established out of the accidental wreckage of the ship Haarlem in 1647 which marked the first Dutch landing in South Africa.

2. In 1652 the Dutch officially came to South Africa with a purpose.

3. Three Dutch ships of DEICO were sent with 130 people under Jan Van Reibeck.

4. The initial 130 settlers settled along the Liesbeck River.

5. Jan was instructed to set up a settlement to DEICO.

6. In 1657 the policy of colonization was adopted and nine soldiers were released from the service.

7. These nine soldier were each given 13V2 acres of land along the Liesbeck valley.

8. By 1662 the colony was still very small and with fewer people.

9. In 1676 Commissioner Verberg stated expanding the colony and new settlements were established.

10. By 1685 the population within the colony had increased and over 150 settler families were there.

11. By 1700 the colony was 55 miles in radius.

12. By 1750 the colony had expanded to 255 miles in radius.

13. By 1775 the expansion had reached 500 miles.

14. By 1780 the colony had reached fish river.

15. The direction of expansion was Easterly and North Easterly.

16. However by 1707 the colonists had established local commando defense units for protection against Africans.

17. By 1795 the colony had four major districts.

18. The district of Cape Town was based in Cape Town.

19. The district of Stellenbosch was based in Stellenbosch.

20. The district of Swellendam which was based in Swellendam.

21. The district of Graafreinet had its capital in Graafreinet,

22. The expansion was by force and through the initiative of the farmers not the company.

Why the Dutch expanded their settlement/colony to Fish river.

1. The expansion was unplanned and it was the work of only the settlers with out company help.

2. Geographical, Economic and administrative factors forced them to expand.

3. There was plenty of unoccupied land in the interior encouraging the Boer expansion.

4. They wanted to get large pieces of land to increase on their wealth.

5. The Africans had been weakened politically and by small pox and dysentery and could not resist them well.

6. They wanted to get more fertile land with good rainfall and water supply.

7. The soils at the cape were becoming poorer and thus wanted more favourable climate.

8. The Dutch were military superior to the Africans with better weapons.

9. They wanted to be independent from any control even if it was from their fellow Dutch men.

10. The Dutch were naturally nomads/pastorals and whenever a chance of moving was there, they moved.

11. They were running away from harsh company laws that restricted their economic activities.

12. The company gave the farmers low prices for their goods and never allowed them to grow the most profitable crops like tobacco.

13. The company imposed a harsh land tenure system which made the farmers' relatives lose the land on the death of the family head.

14. The farmers were looking for better grazing prospects.

15. Most farmers had become bankrupt and wanted to try their luck elsewhere far from the cape.

16. The company's failure to discourage farmers from moving away encouraged the expansion.

17. The cape offered or had poor farming prospects for the settlers.

18. The increased population at the cape made farming there difficult.

19. The company had failed to protect the settlers against the African attacks.

20. The company had failed to give essential services to the settlers.

Effects Of The Dutch Settlement/Expansion On The Africans.

1. Many Africans lost their lives leading to de-population.

2. Africans lost their property during their wars of destruction.

3. Africans lost land especially during Boer expansion.

4. There was a lot of suffering and misery during wars.

5. African women were raped leading to a new race of coloured.

6. Africans lost their dignity especially after the introduction of apartheid.

7. Africans got enslaved with out payment.

8. Africans suffered famine.

9. Africans lost their animals during cattle raids.

10. The Boers raided Africans.

11. Africans lost their independence and political structures.

12. Africans lost their respect and-power.

13. Africans lost their culture and were de-tribalised.

14. Africans were displaced, dislocated and pushed to the dry areas.

15. Africans were defeated and absorbed.

16. Africans adopted European culture of dressing, language etc.

17. Africans acquired bad European habits of smoking and prostitution.

18. Africans suffered from European diseases e.g. T.B and STD's.

19. Africans were hunted down as if they were animals.

20. Africans became poorer and begged from whites to survive.

21. Africans traded with the Dutch getting beads Tobacco and threads.

Reasons for the decline.

In 1795, the British invaded the cape and took over the administration marking the end of company rule at the cape.

1. There was a high rate of corruption and inefficiency among DEICO officers reducing trade and leading to losses.

2. Many of the company officers were not competent and lacked managerial skills ruining the company operations.

3. The company involved itself in acquiring colonies which proved very expensive for the company.

4. The company diverted a lot of money from commerce to administration destroying trade on which it depended very much.

5. There was stiff competition and rivalry from the French and British which drove out DEICO from Business.

6. The company was not all that very rich (lacked capital) to maintain the cape colony.

7. The company also involved itself in the many European wars of the 18th century affecting her operations negatively.

8. By 1795 the company was indebted to the tune of around US$10 Millions contributing to its bankruptcy.

9. The transfer of the European financial centre from Amsterdam to London reduced trade profits of the company.

10. The Napoleonic wars in Europe made the Waters very insecure and to be dominated by the British leaving out the Dutch.

11. Technological developments in London led to the making of faster ships better than those of DEICO out competing her out of business.

12. The company failed to protect settlers leading to revolts in Swellendam and Graaf Reinet which undermined the company.

13. In 1794 the company was declared bankrupt making the cape vacant.

14. In 1795 after King William of Holland requesting the British to do so, the British occupied the cape.

The Kaffir Wars (Wars Of Dispossession).

These were a series of wars between the Xhosa (Bantu) and Boers plus the British on the eastern frontier around the Fish River.

The wars were quite many and occurred at different times. The first occurred around 1770s' and the last around 1857.

The Xhosa leaders were many and included Rarabe, Tyali, Noklami, Nanquasi etc. The wars had various names like Mianjeni rising of 1854, the Nanquase rising of 1856 etc. But all of them were referred to as Kaffir wars.

Causes.

1. The Boer expansion North wards soon was met by the Xhosa expansion South wards at the Great River Fish.

2. Both were agriculturists and pastoralists and required large and pieces for these activities.

3. Expansion by both the Xhosa and Boers.

4. Besides both needed very fertile land after their previous land losing fertility.

5. The Xhosa and Boers had different attitudes towards land ownership i.e. whereas the Boars owned land privately, the Xhosa had communal ownership.

6. The Boers lived in isolated areas giving the Xhosa chance to raid them.

7. Both fought to prevent raid and counter raids made by each other.

8. Both owned large herds of cow-s, which were frequently raided by each other.

9. During the earlier raids Boers had taken Xhosa women annoying Africans.

10. The Boers never respected African culture and abused many traditional practices.

11. The drought and famine that hit both the Xhosa and Boers encouraged food raids.

12. The Xhosa hated their enslavement by the Boers and the poor treatment given to the Xhosa on the white farms.

13. The whites never respected African traditional rulers, which annoyed Africans.

14. The Xhosa also hated the spreading of Christianity in their land by the whites.

15. The later wars were fought mainly because of British imperialism.

16. The Boers never fenced land and lacked clear boundaries making it easy to be claimed by the Xhosa.

17. The increased population on both sides encouraged a search for new bigger areas.

18. The part played by African leaders like Nanquase and Mlanjeni who promised immunity against white bullets encouraged African resistance.

(a) What were the effects of the wars on Africans'?

1. There was great loss of lives on all sides.

2. Depopulation resulted as over 20,000 people lost their lives.

3. Some Africans lost their identity and were absorbed by the whites.

4. African enslavement worsened since they were now weakened.

5. Africans migrated away from their customary areas.

6. African traditional leaders lost authority and recognition.

7. The Africans lost confidence in traditional beliefs and many converted to Christianity.

8. The Xhosa were comprehensively defeated and pushed into oblivion.

9. African economic systems were destroyed and they had to rely on whites for survival.

10. Africans became very poor.

11. The 1834 war contributed to the Great trek in 1835 over the question of Adelaide.

12. There was great destruction and loss of property especially cattle.

13. The racist policies against Africans were strengthened and they lived in constant fear.

14. "More coloureds were born from the Inter marriage between whites and Africans.

15. Africans lost more land.

16. In short the wars distorted the political, social and economic lL"e of the Africans.

(b) Why the British attempt to solve the Kaffir wars failed by 1840s.

1. At first the British tried to keep the blacks and whites apart by stationing garrisons and forts e.g. at Grahamstown in 1812.

2. By the 1812 settlement, the Xhosa lost land in the process hence unrest continued.

3. More land pressure continued when one Xhosa group of Noklami moved into Gaikas area (Gaika was an ally of the British).

4. The British later tried to pass through chief Gaika to return to the Boers cattle looted from them by the Xhosa.

5. Gaika failed to deliver the cows because only about a half of the Xhosa accepted his authority so war continued and in 1819 there was the Makanda rising.

6. In the Makanda rising British forts were badly destroyed.

7. After the Makanda rising the British settled 1.500 British settlers in between the Xhosa and Boers.

8. Unfortunately the British settlers found the large piece of land barren and suitable for only pastoralism so they started with drawing.

9. The British also tried to clear both parties from the disputed land in between R. Fish and R. Keiskama.

10. Many Boers and Xhosa were expelled as a result creating more land shortages.

11. The determination of both parties soon led to the Kaffir war of 1834 leading to more direct British Intervention.

12. In 1835 Governor Benjamin Durban became more harsh by extending the neutral boundary 160 km north.

13. The new British created area was referred to as Queen Adelaide.

14. Benjamin brought more British settlers into Adelaide and gave them free land.

15. The blacks appealed to the Aborigines committee in 1835 and the boundary was returned to the River Fish.

16. The Boers got angry and in i835 left the colony for the interior.