Features of Primitive subsistence farming

The farms are small, rarely having more than a few hectares of land under cultivation at any given time.

The farms are often fragmented each consisting of several scattered plots.

Crop yields per unit area are low.

Much of the work on the land is done by hand, using simple tools such as pangas, axes and digging sticks.

Much of what is produced is consumed by the farmers and their families and there is generally very little or none at all surplus for sale

Few crops are grown which tend to be starchy e.g. Cassava, millet, yams, maize.

The crop yields are low therefore supplemented by hunting wild animals in the forests, fishing in the nearby streams and gathering fruits in the village vicinity.

Farming largely depends on natural conditions in terms of rainfall, soils, temperature and others.

Two main forms of primitive subsistence farming are discussed below.

• Shifting cultivation.
• Rotational bush fallowing.

Shifting cultivation

The most primitive form of cultivation practiced within the tropics is shifting cultivation. It involves a fanner clearing wild vegetation from a plot of land and plants his crops in the clearing.

After a few harvests have been taken from the plot, crop yields begin to decline. The cultivator abandons his existing plot and makes a new clearing elsewhere. It is practiced in tropical Africa, Central America and South East Asia.

It is given different names in different places e.g. chitemene in Zambia, milpa in Central America, lading in Malaysia, chipanga in Zimbabwe and midsole in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the entire central region of the country is a basin consisting of a network of rivers and dense tropical rainforests. In some of these regions, the indigenous people like the Azande still practice shifting cultivation supplemented by hunting in the forests.

The Azande mostly occupy the basins of Uele and Ubangi Rivers. The men clear the forests to plant gardens for food and medicines. Crops planted are mainly starchy foods such as sweet potatoes, cassava, yams, maize, millet and others. Planting is mainly done by the women and children. Since little attention is given to the crops before they sprout and ripen, there is ample time for other activities such as hunting, fishing and fruit gathering in the nearby forests and rivers. Because rainforest soils are poor in nutrients, crop yields decline significantly after a few years.

Once this occurs, the gardens are abandoned and the farmer’s shifts to make new clearing and crops planted. Since they move within short periods of time, the Azande build simple temporary houses, with thatched roofs and walls of mud or wattle and daub. Another group practicing shifting cultivation in DR Congo is the pygmies in the Ituri forests in the Congo valley.

In Congo-Brazzaville, the Congo Basin occupies the northeastern part while the central region is occupied by highlands with several tributaries of U gangi and Congo rivers. Most of the region is covered by dense tropical rain forests were shifting cultivation is practiced.

Madagascar is an island nation in the Indian Ocean. The eastern parts of the country receive very heavy rainfall brought by the South East Trade winds, giving rise to the growth of tropical rainforests. One of the major threats to this natural vegetation is the slash-and-burn agriculture practiced there. From the above, we can derive the following characteristics of shifting cultivation.

Characteristics features of shifting cultivation

Sites for the lading are usually selected in the virgin forests by experienced elders. Hill slopes are usually preferred because of better drainage.

The forests are usually cleared by fire. Shifting cultivation is thus referred to as. Slash and burn agriculture.

The cultivated plots are very small in size, about 1 - 3 acres. The cultivated plots are scattered in their distribution and separated from one another by dense forests or bushesCultivation is done using simple tools such as digging sticks, hand hoes, pangas and axes.

Much manual labour is needed in land clearance to produce crops for a few people. This is mainly family labour.

Few crops are grown and they are mainly starch foods e.g. sweet potatoes, cassava, yarns; maize, millet and others.

Little attention is given to the crops until they sprout and ripen. When crop yields decline, usually after three years, the patch is abandoned and a fresh area is cleared the cultivator may return to the original patch after many years but usually he seldom returns.

In shifting cultivation productions is for home consumption with no surplus crop for sale.

Crop yields are low as the farming system does not provide adequate food for the entire family. The diet has to be supplemented by hunting wild animals in the forests, fishing in the nearby streams or gathering fruits in the nearby vicinity.

Farming depends on natural conditions such as rain fed and existing soil conditions.

Short periods of crop occupancy alternate with long periods of fallowing

Advantages of shifting cultivation

The constant movements ensure fresh sites, which are fertile.

The constant movements result into less risk of diseases. Soil erosion is not serious since only small patches are exposed and these support many crops so that little bare earth is seen. Any soil washed away is trapped at the forest edge in the dense tangle of crop roots.

The form of cultivation gives room for other activities such as gathering fruits from the forests, fishing in the nearby rivers and streams and hunting in the nearby forests.

Clearing of the vegetation is often done by burning. The ash derived from the burnt vegetation helps to improve the fertility of the soil.

As different crops make different demands upon the soil, a higher density of plants per unit area is possible under this system, thus enabling the farmer to obtain the maximum amount of food from the land, which he has under cultivation.

The form of cultivation provides a form of insurance policy for the farmer, as at least some of the crops are likely to yield a fair harvest even if others fail on account of unfavorable weather conditions.

Shifting cultivation requires less labour to produce a given amount of food than do permanent forms of cultivation.

Burning provides an effective way of dealing with the severe weed problems, which faces many tropical farmers. It not only destroys the weed but also checks the growth of weeds at the same time.

The growing of different types of crops on the same piece of land helps to maintain soil fertility.

Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

Although burning initially helps to increase the fertility of the soil by the addition of ash, it also destroys vast quantities of organic matter and bacteria hence affecting the soil forming process.

In many parts of the tropical world, shifting cultivation has been responsible for the destruction or degradation of vast areas of natural forests. In Ivory Coast, Madagascar and Liberia, shifting cultivators have denuded large hectares of land, originally covered by evergreen forests. This has promoted global warming and soil erosion in the cleared areas.

A lot of time is wasted in the clearing of bush each time the shifting cultivators shift to new sites.

It does not encourage the development of a monetary economy as farmers produce crops for their own consumption.

It hinders the development of infrastructure such as roads, health centers and schools. This is because it is difficult to develop such facilities where people are constantly shifting.

It is usual for shifting cultivators to farm one plot for about three years. Fallow periods of up to 20 years should be allowed. However in many areas population is increasing so that people are forced to return to an area after only a few years. This leads to soil impoverishment and soil erosion.

Shifting cultivation can only be practiced in areas with low population densities where people can keep shifting from one place to another.

It is vulnerable to vagaries of weather such as hailstorms, floods, drought as well as other natural conditions such as pests and diseases.

In shifting cultivation there is un-economic use of land as agricultural modernization is not encouraged.

Low crop yields are obtained which are usually insufficient to support the tribe or family.

The cultivators are often unwilling to adopt new farming methods.

Why is shifting cultivation disappearing?

The rapid population growth has put pressure on land. There is therefore little land available where farmers can keep shifting.

The rapid population growth has led to increased demand for food. Better forms of farming have been introduced which lead to greater crop yields.

The introduction of perennial crops such as bananas, coffee, cocoa, rubber and others which are grown throughout the year have compelled farmers to have permanent farms and settlement.

The introduction of monetary economy, which necessitates surplus production for sale, deviates production from production for the family only to production for sale as well.

Increased demand for some crops on the world market. This means the need for increased crop to satisfy the export market.

The coming of white settlers who introduced better forms of crop cultivation e.g. plantation.

Increased awareness of the people of the dangers of shifting cultivation hence its abandonment.

Increased forest conservation policies which limit the clearing of forests and woodlands for cultivation.

Shifting cultivation has many disadvantages that many people are now abandoning it to other forms of crop cultivation.

Rotational bush fallowing

This type of farming is closely related to shifting cultivation. However the main distinction between the two is that in rotational bush fallowing, when crop yields decline the land is left to fallow in Order to regain its fertility and afterwards re-cultivated, Rotational bush fallowing has replaced shifting cultivation in many parts of the tropical Africa. This is particularly the case in West Africa where the average density of population is somewhat higher than in most other parts of tropical Africa.

Like shifting cultivation, rotational bush fallowing is traced mainly within the tropics e.g. northern Nigeria, Ghana, Zambia, Senegal, Ethiopia, South and Central America and South East Asia. In S.E Asia rotational bush fallowing, is known as Sawah agriculture.

The Bemba of Zambia

The Bemba is a very large tribe located in the north central parts of Zambia. Perhaps the most notable area occupied by the Bemba in the Zambian Copper Belt. The region receives moderate rainfall ranging between 1,200-1,300 mm per annum. The rainfall however is unevenly distributed and it occasionally fails. Temperatures are hot most of the year due to the tropical location. These climatic conditions give rise to the growth of savanna vegetation. The population is sparse except in the mining towns such as Ndola, Kitwe, Mufulira, Luanshya and Chingola.

The Bembas were originally shifting cultivators but this practice is dying out due to increased population and demand for food resources. Today most of them practice a particular method of cultivation known as rotational bush fallowing. In this system, patches of land, on average half a hectare in size, are. Cleared while others are left under the natural vegetation. The clearing of the bushes and trees is done by the men during the dry season.

The tree branches are dried and later burnt. The bed of ash which forms has high potash content and is free from weeds. It is on the ash that the seeds are sown. Sowing takes place in the rainy season when the ground has been softened by rain.

The crops sown include maize, which is the main crop and others such as millet, sorghum, groundnuts, sweet potatoes as well as gourds, marrows and cucumbers. Weeding and reaping is done laboriously by the women and children who then store the grains in the granaries. These fields provide families with a variety of foodstuffs since their planting brings in a sequence of harvest.

The fields are cultivated for three, four or even more years, according to the fertility of the soil. Once crop yields decline, the fields are left to fallow or rest to regain its fertility before being re-cultivated. Unlike is shifting cultivation were the homes are temporary, rotational bush fallowing allows a more settled form of farming with attachment to permanent fields hid homes. The farmers no longer ‘shifting their houses and fields as they recognize ownership of individual plots of land. They are therefore becoming sedentary.

Miombo woodlands

Rotational bush fallowing is also pronounced in the Miombo woodlands in central and southern Tanzania. Tsetse flies hinder the spread of settlement as so population density is low. For this reason, clearings must be large enough to keep away the bush-loving fly.

A family clears a field by chopping or burning and saws various crops e.g. rice, tobacco, maize, sunflower and cassava. The government however is discouraging such haphazard ways of growing crops and measures are being taken to change this form of farming to permanent field cultivation. From the above case study, the following characteristics of rotational bush fallowing can be derived.

Characteristic features of rotational bush fallowing

A piece of land is used and when crop yields decline, it is left to fallow in order for it to regain its fertility before being re-cultivated again.

Farming is based on permanent and semi-permanent settlements. There can be a movement of compounds or houses within the same general area

Elementary tools such as hand hoes, pangas and axes are used to clear and till the land.

Both food crops and cash crops are grown e.g. tobacco, maize, cassava and vegetables.

Food production is mostly for home consumption.

Labour is provided by the family.

Land is divided into numerous plots, each of which is cultivated, until it can no longer support high crop yields. It is then left to fallow to regain its fertility.

The length of the fallow period varies considerably depending mainly upon the density of population in the area concerned and the demand for land. In sparsely populated regions the fallow period may be as long as 15 years while in the densely populated areas it may be as short as three years.

Farming depends on natural conditions such as rainfall and soils.