This was one of the most developed and highly centralized states in the interlacustrine region in the mid of 19th century. It covered the area between Lake Kyoga and Lake Victoria in the North and South respectively. To the west she was bordered by Bunyoro and extended as far as River Nile to the East.

The beginning of Buganda as a kingdom is not yet clear among historians for various theories have been advanced in an attempt to explain its origin.

Notably are the Kinyoro traditions which argue that Buganda was founded by Kato Kimera the twin brother of Rukidi Mpuga Isingoma who was the founder of the Bito dynasty. This therefore tends to relate Buganda to the subsequent disintegration of the Chwezi dynasty. Meanwhile another Kiganda tradition assert that Buganda originated from the ancestor Kintu along side his clans from the Mt. Elgon region.

Traditions from Buganda suggest that the founder of Buganda was Kintu who was an immigrant from mount Elgon region. He is believed to have organized the Buganda clans in one centralised organisation with himself on top of the administrative hierarchy. He is regarded as the founder of Buganda kingdom and the 1^st kabaka of Buganda kingdom. This theory is popular among the Baganda and is believed by about 14 clans.

The other theory that explains the origin of Buganda is the Kimera theory. Traditions in Bunyoro assert that Buganda kingdom was founded by a sub dynasty of the Babito. They argue that when the Chwezi Empire disintegrated, different princes founded their own kingdoms. This led to establishment of the sub dynasties of Rwanda, Ankole and Karagwe. Traditions say that the founders of Buganda kingdom was Kato Kimera a twin brother of Isingoma Rukidi Mpuga, the founder of the Bito dynasty in Bunyoro Kingdom.

Kintu is believed to be the founder by the majority of Baganda that must have come from Bunyoro-kitara because this was the only area where state formation was developed. The ideas of state formation would have been copied from East because else where the societies were segmentary. It can therefore be concluded that Buganda kingdom might have come about simultaneously with the other sub dynasties that were formed as a result of the collapse of the Chwezi Bunyoro-Kitara Empire.

Despite these controversies, there is a general agreement among historians that the term Buganda came from the first Chief of the community. It is believed that what is present Buganda was initially a small geographical setting comprised of the three counties notably: Busiro, Kyadondo and Mawokota. However by mid 19^th Century because of a number of factors among which was able leadership for example Ssuna, Mawanda, Ssemakokiro, Mutesa I and others, military strength, proper administration, good climatical conditions, participation in Long Distance Trade, she expanded to her present day position at the expense of the decline of Bunyoro thus covering areas as far as higher chiefdoms of Bukoba region southwards in the modern North West of Tanzania.

Political organization

The Pre-colonial Buganda reflects a classical example of a centralized system of governance for Buganda’s political life was in the hands of the Kabaka who was a supreme ruler, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and the controller of land and finances.

Buganda kingdom was a highly centralised state under a king known as "Kabaka". He was referred to as "Ssabataka" that is head of Bataka, Ssabasajja (head of all men) meaning that he was above the Bataka andabove all men.

The system of succession in Buganda was matrilineal i.e. the Kabaka's sons took up their mother's clans thus giving opportunity to every clan to produce a king.

The Kabaka was assisted by a council of Ministers which was composed of the Prime Minister (Katiikiro), the Minister of Finance (Omuwanika), and the head of all clan leaders of Buganda (Mugema). This council was concerned with giving advice to the king but it was the Kabaka who was to make the final decisions.

The kabaka was the source of power, he could appoint, discipline and dismiss any official of the state at his will. This helped in inspiring a lot of loyalty not only in the subjects but also his chiefs.

For efficient and effective administration, the kingdom was divided into 20 counties each under a "Saza" chief There' were further sub divisions into sub counties each under Gombolola chief. The chiefs were appointed directly by the Kabaka.

Other officials who assisted the Kabaka were the chiefs. These unlike the Kabaka were not hereditary, but only appointed by the Kabaka to administer the various chiefdoms and districts on behalf of the kings (Kabaka) and therefore answerable to him. The duties of these chiefs included among others enforcing the Kabaka’s laws and authority, collecting taxes, look after and maintain roads and other public works like the Kabaka’s palace.

In regard to the Kabaka’s position, it was hereditary and in case of his death; the Prime Minister, the Namasole (King’s mother) and Mugema had to meet and chose from the sons of the deceased Kabaka and after this choice, the remaining sons were either frightened away from the kingdom or arrested especially the most trouble some ones or put to death. In this way, the Buganda kingdom overcame the problem of succession disputes. Below is a list of the Kings of Buganda up to the present.

Buganda was a kingdom with highly centralized system. It had a highly centralized position of the King called Kabaka who controlled all the political, social and economic activities of the state. He had royal regalia and parts of its symbols were the royal drums and spears.

He ruled through autocracy or having absolute powers, to kill, and owning everything in the kingdom.

He was considered semi-divine in person and people always prayed for his peaceful existence lest the kingdom face calamities. He was commander in chief of the mobilized army men of all the able-bodied persons.

His word was final and unquestionable which fetched him a lot of loyalty from his subjects from the chiefs to the commoners.

Below him in administration were three vital palaceofficials who assisted him. They were:

• Katikkiro, who was head of the administration and ran the day to day outside administration for the king.

• "Omulamuzi" also known as head of Justice,
• the "Omuwanika" also called head of finance.

The King, Kabaka, had all the powers to appoint, discipline or dismiss any official of the kingdom at his will. So, people had to be loyal to him.

The above three officials in the name of the king were assisted by several other chiefs such as county and sub-county chiefs.

For easy administration, Buganda was subjected to several administrative divisions such as counties, sub-counties and parishes. They were put under loyal and strong officials.

The officials in Buganda were all answerable to the king and held their offices on behalf of the king. Any Muganda from among the commoners could rise to such offices as long as he exhibited merit but their positions were not hereditary.

In Buganda, succession to the throne was hereditary where in most cases; the elder son of the Kabaka or his favorite son succeeded him.

The Lukiiko played a significant role of acting as an advisory council to the king. Its members were selected from the most influential people of Buganda called notables or Bataka. The Lukiiko acted as Buganda's parliament.

The Namasole or mother queen played an advisory role. Promotion to any office was on merit.

Buganda had a body of spies manned by women who always provided the Kabaka with information regarding their conduct.

The Kabaka always used rewards like land and trade items to boost the loyalty of his subjects towards him. Buganda had tributary states such as Busoga and Karagwe. The chiefs were responsible for construction and road maintenance, tax collection, maintenance of land fertility and collection of other forms of revenue.

MILITARY ORGANISATION

It is said that before 1860, Buganda had no standing army and it was the responsibility of every able bodied man to contribute to the defense of the state.

However, after 1860, some kind of a standing army was started in Buganda and the king was the commander of the armed forces. The chiefs did military commandship in dieirareas on behalf of the Kabaka.

It became necessary for Buganda to have some kind of a standing army after 1850 because of its contact with coastal traders who supplied them with firearms that were used for expansion wars.

Buganda had a royal bodyguard, which maintained the Kabaka's court as well asprotecting the person of the Kabaka.

The weapons used in the army were originally traditional spears and arrows but with the arrival of the coastal traders, Buganda got firearms.

Buganda is also said to have had a navy force on the waters of Lake Victoria manned by Gabanga.

Promotion in the army was on merit and the army's morale was kept high by the rewards, which the king offered to them.

In all its activities, under able commanders appointed by the King, the army was assisted by a strong spy net work, which Buganda kept.

The army played roles like, expanding the state, keeping internal law and order, carried out raids and many others.

The Kings of Buganda

* These four princes never became king but their children did.

*** This is the reigning king.

Militarily, the Kabaka of Buganda was the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and the Buganda kingdom had two armies among which was the royal force which was small and regular and its major duty was to protect the king from time to time while the other was the royal (Mpingu) which was stationed at Lake Victoria equipped with canoes, spears and arrows with the responsibility of protecting the Buganda kingdom against enemies coming from the direction of Lake Victoria.

Initially, these armies were ill equipped although by the first half of the 19th Century, they acquired arms from long distance trade which they later on employed in expanding the Buganda kingdom at the expense of the weaker neighbouring regions and protection against external enemies.

Economic organization

Buganda "was predominantly agricultural. The existence of fertile soils plus abundant rainfall enabled the Baganda to cultivate a variety of crops. Matooke was their basic food. Other crops grown included maize, sweet potatoes, cassava and beans. There was also keeping of some cattle, sheep, and goats but on small scale. The maintenance of food was an activity meant for women. This arrangement enabled men to have an opportunity to engage themselves in other activities like trade and raiding of necessary items from neighbouring societies.

Buganda was economically well positioned for she had a good climate, a lot of rain and fertile land which enabled her to grow a lot of crops especially bananas. The availability of these food stuffs enabled the Kabaka to have food for his people especially the army and administrators and support a large population.

Like any other pre-colonial economy, Buganda’s economy was predominantly subsistence; based on crude or rudimentary, inferior tools with specialization in terms of sex and where women were more involved in agriculture as men got involved in trading, hunting, wars and other activities.

Apart from agriculture, Buganda was also engaged in trade. Initially there was local trade within the boundaries of the locality and with neighbours for example Buganda exchanged her back cloth and coffee beans for iron implements like hoes, spear blades and arrow heads from Bunyoro, Lango and Teso which were endowed with iron ore. Similarly, Buganda traded with Ankole in exchange for some milk products. In this regard therefore, Buganda’s production and exchange relations were predominantly determined by ecology rather than technology.

By the second half of the 19th Century, Buganda began to involve herself in Long Distance Trade where she began selling such commodities as slaves, ivory in exchange for guns, cloths, beads brought by Arabs and Swahili traders. This commercial interaction also enabled Buganda to levy taxes especially on the goods passing through the region.

The kingdom was also blessed by the presence of skilled artisans in the art of barkcloth making. Far and near the Baganda were admired for this work. In the initial stages, the kingdom had no blacksmith workers but at its apex of growth, Buganda acquired counties like Buddu and Koki from Bunyoro which areas were endowed with much minerals. The kabaka also got some skilled men to train his trustees at the palace in iron smelting. Consequently, the trustees took up the art and iron smelting industry which became stronger in Buganda and later provided the items of trade.

Another source of income were the tributes which Buganda got from the subject states notably Busoga and Haya chiefdoms. These were largely conquered states.

War booty, minerals and tributes also formed another important revenue source for the kingdom. After the acquisition of arms and ammunitions which Buganda, actually monopolised she embarked on organising raids and wars against the neigbours. With the raids locally referred to as "Entabaalo", Buganda looted cattle, iron works and beautiful women from their neighbours. Besides being assets to the kingdom, the outcomes of war were used as rewards to the subjects, chief and commanders of the kabaka. Moreover, the successful war conquests led to the acquisition of Buddu and Koki which were important sources, of wealth in Buganda. In addition Buganda could obtain tributes from conquered states such as Busoga, Bukedi etc which they paid regularly as a sign of loyalty to the kabaka.

Social organization

Socially like in the above aspects of life, the king was also the social controller of life in Buganda for he was the political and religious leader and all religious priests in the kingdom were under his control.

This religious connotation greatly won the king loyalty from the masses because he was given extra ordinary powers over the natural forces therefore the people greatly believed in him and did not oppose his authority.

Social stratification was another common characteristic in which the society of Buganda at the eve of European colonialism was divided into classes under which it had the class of the nobility which was a composition of the royal families, below this was the class of the dignitaries (Bakungu), these included the chiefs and friends of the king not to forget the Bataka or clan leaders who were in control of the land on behalf of the Kabaka. Below this class was that of the commoners or local people (Bakopi) and it was this class that greatly suffered for it paid all the dues and taxes and engaged in public works. Similarly, it was from this class that the army was raised although many high ranking offices seemed to come from the royal families until about the second half of the 19th Century.

The worst off of these groups was that of slaves. These were either captured during wars or people who had run away from their oppressive masters. Among their activities were to assist in different jobs available at the Kabaka’s court and the administrative centers.

The clan was the basic social political unit in the organisation of the kingdom. Clans provided a bond of unity in the kingdom. The clans were led by clan heads. These were the Kabaka's representatives among his people. Clan heads were also charged with settling disputes on behalf of the Kabaka. Members of each clan respected one another as close relatives and through intermarriages it was possible to maintain unity in the kingdom.

Some clans had specialised duties in the kingdom. For example, the "Mamba" clan formed the navy force which was led by a commander commonly known a Gabunga, "Ngeye" clan drummed for the kabaka, the "Mbogo" clan provided messengers for the kabaka, the "Ngonge" made barkcloth while the "Butiko" entertained the Kabaka.

Socially, Buganda was homogenous society with the Bantu whose language was Luganda. They also had the same way of dressing and dancing. This homogeneity in language and culture promoted unity within the Buganda society. Another source of homogeneity in Buganda was the Kabaka who was the political and religious leader of the kingdom. He presided over most of the ritual functions in the kingdom.

There were taboos of Buganda that helped in maintaining traditional cultures and maintenance of law and order.

Another social aspect was marriage whereby the Kabaka had a right over any woman married or not and that is why the king had earned himself the title of “a Ssabasajja” literally implying a `man of all men’, a position that he has held up to date.

In conclusion therefore, a critical analysis of the pre-colonial Buganda pre-supposes a classical examples or case study of a centralized society. For the Kabaka was a sole controller of the political, social and economic affairs. Hence the majority of the society were mere spectators than participants in the organization of the kingdom.

The clans of Buganda

Buganda's clan system is central to its culture. A clan represents a group of people who can trace their lineage to a common ancestor in some distant past.

In the customs of Buganda, lineage is passed down along patrilineal lines. The clan essentially forms a large extended family and all members of a given clan regard each other as brothers and sisters regardless of how far removed from one another in terms of actual blood ties. The Baganda took great care to trace their ancestry through this clan structure.

A formal introduction of a Muganda includes his own names, the names of his father and paternal grandfather, as well as a description of the family's lineage within the clan that it belongs to.

The clan has a hierarchical structure with the clan leader at the top (Owakasolya), followed by successive subdivisions called the ssiga, mutuba, lunyiriri and finally at the bottom the individual family unit (enju).

Every Muganda was required to know where he falls within each of these subdivisions and anyone who could not relate his ancestry fully was suspect of not being a true Muganda.

After the coronation of Kabaka Mutebi II in 1993, a survey of the clans was carried out to establish definitively the number of clans, corresponding clan heads, and all other positions of authority within each clan.

The following list shows 46 clans which are officially recognised by His Majesty's government as constituting the clans of Buganda, as of August 1996.

Oral history has always maintained that there are 52 clans in Buganda. This anomaly may be because some clans have not been able to establish their claims legitimately, or possibly that some clans may have died out, with no heirs to carry on the clan heritage.

It is a curious fact that the clans are not known by the names of the respective clan founders. Instead, totems were adopted by the clans, and the names of those totems came to be synonymous with the clans themselves.

Each clan has a main totem (omuziro) and a secondary totem (akabbiro). The clans are usually known by the main totem and they are listed above by that totem. The royal clan (Abalangira) is a unique exception in that it has no totems whatsoever.

For a proper understanding of the culture however, it is important to distinguish between the totem and the clan. The clan is a matter of genealogy and it is through the clan that the baganda trace their ancestry. A totem on the other hand, is just a symbol to represent the clan. Although the two are intimately associated with one another, they are in fact different. In the west, a totem would be similar to a court of arms.

The table below gives the list of the clans of Buganda.

List of the Clans of Buganda

Because the clan was a big extended family unit, the success of any member of the clan was considered success for the whole clan. Conversely, disgrace for any clan member reflected negatively on the whole clan. This reality was often tragically demonstrated when a high official fell out of favor with the king.

If the king considered the transgressions serious, he would sometimes take out his vengeance on all members of the culprit's clan regardless of their personal involvement. In some cases, this led to whole clans trying to "disappear" from society. (This was done by the victims disavowing their clans and claiming to be members of other clans. Usually they would return to their real clans once the fury of the king was assuaged or after the king's passing).

Strict knowledge of one's lineage was thus important to ensure that one's ancestry did not get lost in this clan shuffle. Follow this link for a discussion of some peculiarities of the royal clan.

Given the fact that the fortunes of individual clan members were so linked to the fortunes of the whole clan, the clan used to provide support and sustenance to all its members regardless of their status in society.

If an individual transgressed some serious societal taboo, one of the most severe punishments he would face is expulsion from the clan. A person without a clan was considered a non-entity! This clan system should not be confused with a communal system.

Individual clan members had individual property rights and they achieved success as individuals. However it was understood and accepted that the fruits of success would be shared just as tribulations would also be shared.

One of the strongest manifestations of the clan spirit was in the traditional naming conventions. Remembering that Buganda was a patrilineal society, everyone automatically took on their father's clan at birth. However, the new born child was considered to be a child of the whole clan and not just the individual father. Thus the child did not assume the father's name. Instead, each clan had a pool of names from which a name would be selected and given to the child. Since the clan names were well known, a person's clan could be readily identified from their name but not necessarily the person's parents. Although each family retained its autonomy as a unit, it was nonetheless considered part of the bigger clan family.

According to the customs of the Baganda, one is not supposed to marry into one's clan or that of one's mother. This type of system is referred to as being exogamous. Similarly, one is not supposed to eat the totem of one's clan. Also, one is not supposed to eat the totem of the mother's clan.

When Buganda's system of governance was agreed upon following Kintu's ascent to the throne, roles and responsibilities were assigned according to clans. Although the clan leaders conceded sovereignty to the king, they retained their role as leaders of the clans. They had authority to mediate disputes within their clans. They would also second candidates to the king for appointment to various offices of state. There evolved a practice whereby young boys were sent to the king's palace to serve as pages. These pages often grew to become prominent citizens with positions of responsibility in the running of the kingdom.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION

Buganda was divided into social classes, which included; the royal class, chiefs, peasants and commoners or "Bakopi".

The clan was the largest form of social unit under clan heads. There were about 50 clans. The Kabaka was head of all clans in Buganda and on that account assumed the title of Sabataka. He was regarded the best and strongest man in Buganda and hence called Sabasajja. Every clan had a role to play in the Kabaka's court. For example, the Mbogo clan provided messengers for the Kabaka while the 'Mamba' clan formed the navy section. The Kabaka married from all the clans to ensure unity.

While the Kabaka took the clan of his mother, the rest of the Baganda took the father's side.

The Kabaka was buried in a royal place full of regalia called (Tombs or) Amasiro.

Religion was highly respected and originally it was under the control of the king and changed during King Tebandeke's time when independent religious officials developed.

There were so many religious officials who were accorded too much respect because of the work they did, people offered sacrifices to them.

Traditionalism with all its customs and norms was highly respected and cherished among the Baganda. They believed in ancestral spirits and those of the living dead such as the Mukasa, Lubale and Ddungu, etc.

Buganda had a series of games and sports, such as board games, wrestling and mock battles, e.t.c. The common dress for Baganda was made of bark cloth which they changed to long dresses made out of cotton and silk when Arabs and Europeans visited Uganda. For example, 'Kanzus’. They built houses with mad, reeds and banana leaves.

The Baganda were great musicians and drumming was usually done by men and women danced on vital festivals and ceremonies.

The Baganda were ahomogeneous society and spoke one common language called Luganda, which boosted their unity.

Marriage was one of the vital rituals stressed in Buganda but to marry from within a clan was generally a taboo save in a few instances like in the case of Mamba clan.

Economic organisation

Buganda had a centralized economy ail controlled by the Kabaka. All the land in Buganda belonged to the Kabaka and all other sources of income. However, Buganda did a number of economic activities which included:

They practiced agriculture and produced a variety of crops like bananas, pumpkins, potatoes and many others. Cultivation of crops was always left for women as men were engaged in other activities like hunting and bark cloth making.

They reared animals such as goats and cattle for milk, meat, hides and skins.

Hunting of wild animals such as elephants, hippopotamuses and wild pigs was done save the leopard which was a state symbol. Fishing was done on water bodies especially Lake Victoria / Nalubaale and Mayanja.

They raided neighbours for items like cattle, goats, food and women from Bunyoro, Ankole and others.

They got tributes from tributary states such as Busoga, Ankole and Karagwe.

They were industrious and made bark cloth especially from Kooki which was meant for home use and in trade with neighbours.

They carried out trade both local and external with neighbours, locals, and Arabs and Swahilis dealing in items like bark cloth, coffee, beans, salt, hoes, spears, knives, clothes, beads and others.

Iron making formed part of their economic activities producing tools like spears, hoes, arrows and many others by the black smiths.

Thus, in conclusion, by the second half of the 19^th Century, Buganda had developed a highly sophisticated centralized system of administration, which was only washed away by the British colonialists.