FORESTRY

A forest is a large tract of land covered extensively by trees, while forestry is the scientific process of planting, exploitation and conservation of forests.

It is a conscious science of managing forests on a sustainable basis balancing exploitation with conservation.

Two broad categories of forests can be identified. Those that came into existence naturally i.e. the natural forests and those men have planted i.e. the artificial forests.

Natural forests

These are forests found growing in a particular environment and are not planted by man. There are two main types of natural forests dealt with here namely;

1. Tropical forests.

2. Temperate coniferous forests Tropical forests

There are three types of tropical forests namely;

1. Tropical rainforests or equatorial forests.

2. Mangrove forests.

3. Tropical monsoon forests.

Of the above, the tropical rainforests are the most important and so covered here in detail.

Tropical rain forests or equatorial evergreen forests

Tropical rain forests are found in three main areas;

Africa

In Africa, most of the rainforest is concentrated along the Atlantic coast and the Congo River Basin. In the basin of the Congo River is a great tropical rainforest extending to the north of the equator and a similar distance south of the equator. On the west, the forest extends to the Atlantic coast in the Congo, Gabon, and Cameroon, and stretches in an interrupted belt along the West African coast to Nigeria, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia and Sierra Leone until Guinea. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, tropical rain forests cover about 65 percent (2000) of the country's total area and constitute a major natural resource. Tropical rainforest also occurs along the eastern side of Madagascar and Latin America.

In South America, a vast, forested area of the Amazon River basin in Brazil and neighboring countries is by far the largest rain forest in the world. It encompasses more than 3.5 million sq km, about half of the total global rainforest cover. Other localities include the Pacific coast of Columbia, Panama and Mexico.

South Asia and the Indian Sub-Continent:

Rainforests are found in Malaysia, Indonesia-and Papua New Guinea, and in the coastal low lands of other south and south East Asian countries.

Characteristics of tropical rain forests

· The forests are thick and luxuriant with much foliage. This is due to the heavy rainfall, which is well distributed throughout the year and hot temperatures.

· The trees are evergreen. The trees are in leaf fall, fruit and green at one and the same time. No resting period is imposed on growth by drought or cold.

· The forests are not found in pure stands of a single tree species. They are highly heterogeneous with different tree species such as mahogany, ironwood, green heart, rosewood, ebony, red wood and others.

· The trees are broad-leaved to release excess water through transpiration as well as trapping light for photosynthesis.

· The trees grow to a great height usually over 30 meters and above in an attempt to get sunlight.

· The trees have tall, straight smooth barks before they crown.

· The forests have distinct layers called canopies, the top layer, the middle payer and the bottom layer.

· The dense canopies shut out the light from reaching lower levels. There is therefore sparse undergrowth or no under growth.

· They have buttress roots usually extending up to several meters above the ground. Trees such as the kapok are supported by thick buttresses-that can stretch out 10 m (33 ft) or more. These buttresses provide needed support for rain forest trees, top heavy because nutrient-poor rain forest soils lead to fragile, shallow root systems.

· The trees yield mainly hardwoods e.g. ebony, mahogany and others.

· Most of the tree species take long to mature.

· There are many climbing plants such as lianas and epiphytes which stretch to over 100 meters in length and which twin from tree to tree.

· Epiphytes, including mosses, bromeliads, and orchids, grow on tree trunks or nestled in the crook of a tree but without feeding on them.

· Along shores and muddy coasts are coconut palms and casuarinas spread by water-borne seedlings or aerial roots.

· Where the virgin forests have been cleared for cultivation or lumbering, secondary forests emerge.

Factors that have favoured the growth of tropical rain forests

Physical factors

The heavy rainfall of over 1500 mm per annum, which is also well-distributed throughout the year and hot temperatures of over 20°C favour the growth of tropical rainforests. It results in the forests being thick and luxuriant as well a being evergreen.

Presence of deep and fertile soils for the growth of the forests. In Congo, Gabon and Cameroon, the hot temperatures and heavy rainfall promote the intense chemical weathering and the formation of deep soils. The vegetation enriches this soils with nutrients from the decaying organic matter as well as preventing loss of soil fertility by preventing soil erosion.

Low attitude of less than 2,000 meters above sea level such as in the Congo and Amazon basins.

Tropical rainforests thrive in areas which are well drained. The Amazon basin is drained by the Amazon River with hundreds of tributaries in Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela and Bolivia. Similarly the Congo basin is drained by the vast Congo River with numerous tributaries.

Presence of pests and diseases in addition to wild animals, which scare settlements away. The Congo rainforests for example contain wild animals such as monkeys, squirrels, forest pigs, baboons and others which scare man away. The malaria parasite which is transmitted by mosquitoes is also wide spread in these forests. Reptile species, including snakes, lizards, and crocodiles, are numerous in the rainforests of Papua New Guinea.

Hot-humid inhospitable environment discourages settlement hence sparsely settled.

The nature of trees and their surroundings is a hindrance to forest exploitation. Many of the trees especially in West Africa forests in Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana and Nigeria have buttress roots extending outwards from the base of the trunk, which makes the task of felling more difficult. This limits their exploitation.

Human factors

In areas such as the Congo and Amazon basins, the population is very low and this has helped in the preservation of forests.

Government policies of forest conservation restrict settlements in forest areas in Brazil, the largest national park is Jail in the state of Amazonas, with 2.3 million hectares aimed at protecting the forests and wild animals. The largest park of West Malaysia is Taman Negara National Park, covering more than 4,300 sq km of dense tropical rain forest. Other protected areas in form of forest reserves are in Gabon, DR Congo and Ghana.

In many parts of the tropical world, lumbering is carried out using elementary tools such as axes, matches, pangs and handsaws e.g. in Madagascar, Papua New Guinea, and Congo- Brazzaville. This means the level of exploitation is low.

Large areas of tropical rainforests are inaccessible due to poor transport routes. The largest forest area in Africa is in the Congo Basin but this suffers from poorly developed 'roads, railway and water transport facilities and hence little exploits.

In Brazil, Congo, Cameroon and Gabon, the demand for timber and timber products is still low though increasing. The products therefore have to be exported. However, the markets abroad are also limited by competition with coniferous forests, which are used for a wide variety of purposes.

Importance of tropical rain forests

Building materials

Tropical rainforests contain hard woods such mahogany and rosewood, which are durable and therefore used in the building and construction industry. In many parts of tropical African countries such as Gabon, Congo and Liberia, poles are used to make the framework for houses. On this framework, mud walls are built, timber is also used in roofing.

Source of raw materials for industries

Forests are a source of timber used in various industries. In Liberia Palm kernels from which oil for soaps is extracted and palm fibers are important forest products. A large ply wood factory and a cellulose factory based on forest resources are found at Port Gentil in Gabon. In Ghana, the obeche wood is widely used in the boat making industry. Gutta percha and balata are saps obtained from Malay Archipelago forests used in the making of machine belting, electrical installation and casings of golf balls. Chile which is used in the manufacture of chewing gum is obtained from the Brazil and Bolivia.

Rubber Tapping in Brazil

One of the valuable products of the Brazilian forests, rubber is gathered by tapping—making a small incision in the bark of a rubber tree and collecting the fluid that drains out. Rubber trees are scattered throughout the rain forest.

Peter Frey/The Image Bank

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Many trees that grow in rainforests in Congo, Thailand and Malaysia are highly prized for the durability and beauty of their wood. Teak, rosewood, and mahogany are rain forest hardwoods used to make furniture and cabinetry all over the world. Teak, which resists corrosion from weather, is also highly valued in shipbuilding.

Fuel

In many developing countries, wood is still the main source of fuel consumed either directly in form of firewood or indirectly in the form of charcoal. The bulk of Ghana, DR Congo and Nigeria's forest production is fuel wood, consumed either as wood or as charcoal. In Ghana, Nigeria, Liberia and other West African countries, wood is an important fuel for fish smoking while in Zimbabwe wood is used in the firing of tobacco-curing kilns.

Source of foodstuffs.

Many fruits and nuts are still gathered from the tropical rainforests. Rainforests also offer a bounty of foodstuffs. Foods that are gathered from the rainforests include coffee, cocoa, many fruits and nuts, spices, rice, mushrooms and yams e.g. in Brazil's Amazon forests and Congo rainforests.

Modification of climate

Rain forests such as those in Brazil, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, and Indonesia also play a critical role in global climate regulation by absorbing carbon dioxide, a gas believed to be partially responsible for global warming. By naturally absorbing carbon dioxide and giving off oxygen gas in the process of photosynthesis, and tropical rain forests help to prevent global warming.

Furthermore, tropical rainforests contribute to the formation of rainfall which is vital for agriculture and other plant growth. Evaporation from the broad-leaved tropical rainforest trees results in moisture rising, condensing to form clouds thus leading to rainfall formation. The Amazon forest in the largest in the world and this explains why its watershed is the largest and wettest tropical plain in the world.

Catchment area

Tropical rainforests act as sources of many rivers. The Congo River and its numerous tributaries of Ubangi, Kasai, Lomami, Aruwimi, Uele, Lulonga, and Ruki derive their waters from the heavy rainfall generated by the Congo forest. Similarly the Amazon River with its hundreds of tributaries such as Ucayali, Maranon, and Para, derive their waters from the heavy rains that drench much of the densely forested Amazon region throughout the year.

Itaipu Hydroelectric Power Plant, Brazil

When operating at its full capacity of 12,600 megawatts, the Itaipu hydroelectric power plant generates more electrical energy than any other dam in the world. Its location on the Paraná River allows Brazil and Paraguay to share its output. The plant was dedicated in 1982.

Julia Waterlow/Eye Ubiquitous/Corbis

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Soil conservation

Tropical rainforests provide the most effective anti-erosion control than other type of vegetation. In the Cameroon, Madagascar, and Papua New Guinea, the tropical rainforest tree canopies reduce the force of the falling raindrops before they reach the ground. The litter of decaying leaves on the floor of the forest acts as a sponge, absorbing the large part of water falling on it and releasing it slowly and harmlessly to the underlying soil. The tree roots help to bind the soil particles together. It is therefore of great importance that forests cover should be maintained on steep watershed areas especially in regions where the rainfall is heavy and .torrential in nature.

Coffee Plantation, Minas Gerais

Coffee beans dry in the foreground at this plantation in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. Brazil produces about one-quarter of the world’s coffee supply. Although Brazil’s economy has become increasingly diversified in the last several decades, agriculture remains a major component.

Maria Luiza M. Carvalho/Panos Pictures

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Medicine

Forests are sources of drugs used in the treatment of various diseases. In Madagascar the rosy periwinkle is used to treat of leukemia and Hodgkin's disease affecting lymph nodes. The cinchona tree, which grows in the Amazon tropical rainforest regions of Columbia, Brazil and Bolivia, as well as in Burma and is of importance for its bark, which is the natural source of the drug quinine used in the treatment of malaria.

Game conservation

Forests are habitants of wildlife such as birds, various animals and plants. These wildlife resources attract tourists thus earning the respective country's valuable foreign exchange. Among the various animals found in Benin's rainforests are elephants, buffalo, antelope, panthers, monkeys, crocodiles, and wild ducks. In Brazil, wild animals such as pumas, jaguars, ocelots, bush dogs, foxes deer and a diverse populations of birds in the rain forests hence promoting biodiversity.

Brazilian Rain Forest

The rain forests along the Atlantic Coast of eastern Brazil are the world’s richest in terms of biodiversity. Although long isolated, they are now endangered by settlement, farming, and cattle grazing. This rain forest is in the state of Paraná in southeastern Brazil.

Foreign exchange

Timber in form of logs, sawn timber and veneers from the forests is exported and earns foreign exchange to the respective countries. Major exporting countries include Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Cameroon and the Central African Republic. Gabon is the world's largest producer of okoume, a wood that is used to make plywood. In Cote d'Ivoire, timber is one of the country's major exports and logs are often seen floating near the Port of Abidjan for export. The most important export timbers are mahogany, iroko, sipo, obeche, and makore. Timber is also an important export item in the countries of Burma, Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia. In Brazil, nuts from the Amazon forest are exported to Europe and North America where they are eaten as whole nuts or used in confectionary. In addition, rainforests in Congo and Nigeria are home to a number of exotic animals, such as parrots and monkeys, which bring high prices when captured and sold as pets.

Capital inflow

The exploitation of' tropical rainforests has attracted foreign investors who bring in not only capital but also technical skills. Exploitation and processing of timber in countries such as Gabon, Cameroon and DRC has attracted capital inflow from large European firms especially from countries such as France and Portugal.

Employment

The presence of tropical rain forests has generated employment opportunities to many people in the field of lumbering, forest guards, timber processing industries, forest officers and such in many countries such as Liberia, Equatorial Guinea, DR Congo and others. The incomes earned have helped to raise the people's standard of living.

Source of revenue

The exploitation of forests has led to the generation of revenue to countries such as DR Congo and Gabon through taxes imposed on lumbering companies, wood processing industries, workers incomes in the industry and other related activities.

Diversification of the economy

Many countries such as Benin, Togo, Ghana and Ivory Coast, depend on the agricultural sector. The presence of tropical rainforests has helped in the diversification of their economies and to reduce over-reliance on the agricultural sector.

Research

Forests are used for research purposes. Indigenous tribes often possess a great wealth of knowledge about the rainforests including the medicinal uses of different plant species, the habits of breeding birds, and rainfall patterns. This knowledge has been passed down verbally from generation to generation. Today, many researchers are gathering this information and documenting it e.g. in Brazil, Bolivia, DR Congo and Malaysia. This includes lecturers and students of higher institutions of learning such as universities and forest colleagues.

Recreation

Forests are used as grounds for physical and mental recreation such as hunting, picnics and forest walks.

Source of livelihood

Some indigenous peoples live deep within the rainforests in areas that to this day, are accessible only by river. Among the many small groups are the Yanomamo, the Ashaninka, and the Kayap of the Amazon, the Baka Pygmies of Cameroon forests, Bambuti pygmies in the Congo forests, and the Penan and Bentian Dayak of Borneo, Malaysia. Although each indigenous group has a different culture and customs, they all share a dependence on the rainforest habitat in which they live. Many indigenous peoples collect fruits, nuts, firewood, construction materials, and game meat from the rain forests. Most also depend on small-scale agriculture for food and medicinal plants.

Minerals

A number of minerals occur in the tropical rainforests e.g. petroleum in Venezuela and gold in Brazil, all found in parts of the Amazon forest.

Short comings of tropical rain forests

They hinder the development of transport and communication routes e.g. not only are roads difficult to construct but once built are difficult to maintain because of rapid re-growth of vegetation for example in the Congo Basin forests.

The forests habour dangerous pests and diseases which affect people living near them as well as their animals and plants. Mosquitoes causing malaria and tsetse flies causing sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in livestock are common diseases in the forested regions of Congo and Gabon.

Some forests have few valuable trees species and therefore of low commercial value and un-economical to exploit.

In areas where population pressure is mounting, tropical rain forests are seen as an obstacle to arable farming and settlement e.g. in the coastal areas of Nigeria.

Forests habour wild animals which attack man and destroy his crops when they go beyond the forest boundaries e.g. jaguar, monkeys, crocodiles and large snakes in the Amazon forest regions of Venezuela and Columbia.

Some tropical rainforests have earned a reputation as hiding grounds for anti-government elements e.g. the various Ugandan, Congolese, Rwandese Rebels and anti government forces in the Democratic Republic of Congo rainforests.

Large forests act as social and economic barriers between people of the opposite sides.

In countries such as Gabon and DR Congo, logging is mainly carried out by large foreign firms which repatriate their profits to their mother countries such as France and Portugal.

Timber processing industries lead to the pollution of the environment through the emission of dust, smoke and other toxic gases to the atmosphere e.g. the large ply wood factory and a cellulose factory based on forest resources found at Port Gentil in Gabon and at Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysia.

Forest exploitation and the processing of forest products has led to the growth of urban centers and their associated problems such as unemployment, high crime rates and slum development e.g. in Port Gentile and Owendo Port in Gabon.

Tropical rainforests are seen as an obstacle in the expansion of agricultural land in Brazil, Liberia, Madagascar and Ghana.

Forest exploitation is difficult and risky as it is associated with loss of lives during felling e.g. in the Congo forests.

Exploitation of tropical rainforests

Commercial timber production of tropical rainforests is quite small compared to that in the temperate forests. Logging rainforest timber is a large economic source. Sadly however, most of the real profits of the timber trade are made not by the developing countries, but by multinational companies and industrialists of the Northern Hemisphere. These huge, profit-driven logging companies pay governments a fraction of the timber's worth for large logging concessions on immense tracts of rainforest land and reap huge profits by harvesting the timber in the most economical manner feasible with little regard to the destruction left in their wake. Tree cutting is done by mechanical saws and tractors drag the logs to the main service roads where they are loaded on huge Lories to transport to saw mills. In countries such as Ghana and Nigeria, the logs are either railed or pulled to nearby rivers and floated down to the coast. Logging companies build roads, which often provide access for landless farmers to enter a new area, as well as a .means to transport agricultural crops to market.

Problems facing-the exploitation or harvesting of tropical rain forests

Some of the most densely forested such as the Amazon and Congo basins are impenetrable making exploitation extremely difficult. There are many creepers and lianas which complicate exploitation

Trees of tropical rain forests are not found in pure stands of a single species. They are highly heterogeneous. Valuable timber trees such as mahogany and ebony are thus widely i scattered and are interspersed with other species, which are at present of no commercial value e.g. in Gabon, Ghana, and Ivory Coast. Consequently, it is often difficult to locate the valuable species and to remove them from the forest once they have been felled.

Once cut tropical rainforest tree species such as mahogany and rosewood take very many years to regenerate usually over 50 years hence affecting future timber supplies e.g. in Ghana, Indonesia and Burma. It is therefore difficult to maintain production on a sustainable basis.

Many of the trees especially in West Africa forests of Ghana, Togo and Benin have buttress roots extending outwards from the base of the trunk, which makes the' task of felling more difficult. To avoid cutting through the buttresses, the fellers usually work from plant forms, which they build around the trunk of the tree, at a height of about 15 meters from the ground.

Most of the tropical rainforests are located in developing countries where technology is low. Much of the timber is still felled by axes, matches, pangas and handsaws e.g. in Brazil and Ghana. Although the use of power driven saws is increasing it is still on a small scale. These limit the rate of exploitation.

Related to the above is the limited capital to purchase modern forest exploiting equipment such as electric saws, tractors and spurs wheels in DR Congo, Gabon and Ghana.

Much of the best timber is not accessible because of the lack of road and railways in the forested areas. Not only are roads difficult to construct, but once built are difficult to maintain because of rapid re-growth of the vegetation. Typical examples are the Amazon and Congo basin forests.

In the densely forested regions like the Amazon, and Congo basins, the population is extremely sparse. In such areas, logging companies often find it, difficult to obtain sufficient labour both skilled and semi-skilled to work in the forestry industry.

The jungle environment is far from hospitable to both local and foreign labour. The presence of insect pests such as mosquitoes' causing malaria and a variety of wild animals such as snakes, tigers and elephants in the rainforest regions of Brazil, Congo, Gabon and, Nigeria discourage the exploitation of the tropical rain forests.

The hot and humid climatic conditions within type tropical areas of Congo, Gabon, Cameroon and Nigeria make forest exploitation difficult as they discourage labour.

Limited market for hardwoods such as ironwood, rosewood and others. These tropical hardwoods compete with temperate hardwoods, which are more accessible and more easily extracted and yet have more uses such as pulp and paper, newsprint, lumber and others.

Another major problem facing forest exploitation is over exploitation. For example, the forest resources of Ghana have been depleted seriously thus affecting future supplies. More over many areas cleared of their original forests have been replanted with other fast growing woods. This in the long run will make the forests less valuable as the highly priced durable constructional woods will be exhausted.

Many accidents Occur during the felling and transportation of the titnber1eading to the death of the workers.

Government policies whereby mining, tourism, agriculture and industrialization are favoured in relation to forests. In Malaysia and Nigeria, the exploitation of petroleum and natural gas have undermined the exploitation of forests

Competition from products exploited from the temperate forests especially from developed countries such as Canada, Norway and Sweden which reduce the demand for tropical rainforest species such as rosewood, ebony and obeche from Nigeria and Benin.

The logs of the tropical rainforests are heavy and bulky, and therefore difficult to transport e.g. the mahogany, ebony, teak, iroko, obeche and rosewood in Nigeria, Cameroon; Ghana, and Ivory Coast.

Limited research is carried out to improve the methods of logging resulting in poor methods of felling, transporting and processing of timber.

Political instability which often results into wars, discourages forest exploitation. Forests are often used as hiding grounds for anti government elements for example in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia and Ivory Coast.

Bush fires started either deliberately by hunters and agriculturalist or naturally b, lightening cause extensive damage to forests in the Amazon forest regions of Brazil as well as in Indonesia.

Environmental activists argue that forests must be protected to prevent the global warming, soil erosion, landslides and other negative effects. The creation of forest reserves and wildlife reserves has limited the forests available for exploitation in Brazil, Gabon and Congo forests.

Case study of tropical rainforests in Brazil

The Amazon rainforest is the biggest forest in the world. It covers huge territory that is located in the north side of the South American continent and is shared by 9 countries; Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, French Guiana end Guiana. The largest part of is located in Brazil (6,000) and Covers almost half of the country. The rainforest produce not only timber, but also a range of products such as rubber, palm oil, charcoal Brazil nuts.

Rubber Tapping in Brazil

One of the valuable products of the Brazilian forests, rubber is gathered by tapping—making a small incision in the bark of a rubber tree and collecting the fluid that drains out. Rubber trees are scattered throughout the rain forest.

Map of South America Showing the location of the Amazon Forest

Factors that have favored the development of forestry in Brazil

Physical factors

The equator passes through northern Brazil, running adjacent to the Amazon River.

Because of its equatorial location, temperatures are hot throughout the year the average being 25°C which is ideal for the growth of tropical rainforests.

A tropical wet climate characterizes much of northern Brazil, with abundant rainfall and little or no dry season. Rainfall averages about 2,200 mm a year.

Presence of deep fertile soils which sustain the growth of the forests.

Most of the terrain is gently undulating, rarely rising more than 150 m (490 ft) above sea level. The low attitude favors the growth of tropical rainforests as well as the construction of transport routes.

The area covered by the tropical rainforests is so extensive almost 50% of the total land area of the country.

The Amazon River flows through the center of the rainforest and is fed by over 1,100 tributaries, 17 of which are more than 1,000 miles long. The river is so deep that ocean liners can travel up its length to 2,300 miles inland. The river and its tributaries are also used for floating the logs to the processing centers.

The presence of several rivers has enabled Brazil produce abundant hydro-electricity, on which the timber processing industries largely depend.

The forests contain vast valuable wood species of commercial value such as mahogany, rosewood, ebony, teak, red heart, balsawood and others.

Landmarks of Rio de Janeiro

Much of the city of Rio de Janeiro, in southeastern Brazil, lies between mountains and water. The massive statue known as Christ the Redeemer, right, tops Corcovado Mountain. The statue, built to commemorate Brazil’s first 100 years of independence from Portugal, seems to gaze over the city toward Sugar Loaf Mountain, a bare granite rock rising out of Guanabara Bay.

Will and Deni McIntyre/ALLSTOCK, INC.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Other factors

Of the over 180 million people of Brazil, only about 7 percent of the population lives in the Amazon region. The population remains sparse in this region due to thick vegetation and an oppressively hot and humid climate. Large areas therefore remain under forests.

Brazil's government policy of protecting the environment which includes the forests. The largest single protected area is the National Forest of Rio Negro, also in Amazonas, with more than 3.7 million hectares (9.1 million acres).

Government policy to diversify the economy by developing several sectors such as forestry, industrialization and others.

The presence of fairly developed transport routes in the country for exploiting the forest resources and their transportation to the market. These include inter-urban and inter-regional highways, such as the Trans-Amazon Highway, an east-west artery linking isolated regions of Brazil and Peru.

Well developed port facilities at Salvador, Vitoria, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Paranagua, and Rio Grande to handle timber exports.

Availability of sufficient capital the exploitation of the forests from foreign investors especially from Europe and USA as well as the Government of Brazil and its wealthy nationals.

Introduction of high level of technology involving the use of electric saws, tractors and spur wheels in the felling and transportation of logs.

The high population provides highly skilled labour from developed countries such as Norway and Canada as well as cheap semi-skilled labour provided by the nationals to work in the forestry industry

The development of industries which process the forest products. For example, the country has over 3,000 sawmills widely scattered in the areas of Salvador, Vitoria, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Paranagua, and Rio Grande.

Availability of a large market for the timber and timber products in Europe, and in the Asian countries of China and India among others.

Relative political stability which has enabled long tern investments in the forestry industry as well as attraction of foreign investors in the industry.

Supportive government policies such as construction of roads to link the forests, attraction of foreign investors, and re-afforestation programmes.

Importance of the Brazilian tropical rainforests

The forests are an important source of a range of products for domestic use and export. Almost 60 percent of log wood (for furniture and similar purposes) comes from the rain forest, and another 20 percent comes from plantations in the Southeast and South. Timber products such as paper and cellulose account for about 8 percent of export earnings. Exports in 2000 (by their total value) included:

· wood pulp, $1,601 million;

· sawn wood, $519 million;

· plywood, $374 million;

· fiberboard, $58 million; and

· veneer, $26 million.

Other valuable forest products are acai fruit; babacu nut; yerba mate, whose leaves are made into a tea like beverage; and piacava fiber, which is used to make brooms and cords. There is also substantial production of charcoal, particularly for the iron industry. Wood and charcoal are still widely used in rural areas for cooking. They are also important commercial sources of energy, particularly in iron smelting and lime making. The forests are further gaining a reputation as sites for ecological tourism.

Case study of tropical rainforests in Gabon

Gabon is one of the African countries with dense tropical rainforest cover estimated to cover about 77% of its land surface. Initially, logging was concentrated along the coast where access and transportation were easier and cheaper. Over time, foresters moved farther into the interior as the pressure on the coastal zones grew in intensity.

Gabon also has valuable forest resources, mainly in its stands of okoume, mahogany, kevazingo, and ebony. Timber used to be the most important export item before the discovery of petroleum. The country is the largest producer of okoume in the world.

Sketch Map Showing the Location of Forests in Gabon

Over exploited rainforests

Factors that have favoured the development of the forestry industry in Gabon

Physical factors

The equatorial climate consisting of heavy rainfall of over 1500 mm per annum which is well distributed throughout the year favours the growth of the forests.

The hot temperatures of 25°C and above which have encouraged the growth of thick and luxuriant forests.

The forests contain valuable species of trees. Besides having a virtual monopoly of the world's supplies of okoume, Gabon has valuable reserves of Mahogany, Ebony, Azigo and others. The forests contain over 400 species of trees, with about 100 species suitable for industrial use.

The forested land is traversed by a convenient river system focusing on the River.

These rivers are used to transport the logs to the coast. The logs are rolled into the water and lashed together in huge rafts, which are either rowed or pulled by tug-boats down stream to the timber dressing mills along the coast.

The relatively flat nature of the landscape, which facilitated the construction of transport routes particularly roads and railway lines for transporting the timber and timber products e.g. the railway line from Libreville to Booue.

Presence petroleum used as energy and rivers used to generate hydro electric power to run the saw mills.

The low population of less than 2 million people with a low population density of about 8 people per square kilometer or less in the interior has favoured thy continued existence of forests.

The presence of deep fairly fertile soils which support forest growth.

The presence of the Cristal Mountains in the north and the central Chaillu Mountains which are rugged limit other land uses hence left to forests.

Human factors

Availability of large sums of capital derived from high revenues from oil production as well as from foreign investors from France and other European countries provided the country with capital to invest in the forestry industry.

Favourable government policies such as investment in the forestry industry by government e.g. the giant sawmills at Kango, built by the government enable over half of Gabon's timber to be processed within the country.

Attraction of foreign investors through concessions given to them to exploit the forests

Many European firms particularly from France poured in sufficient capital for the development of the forestry industry.

Availability of a ready market for the timber and timber products in various countries.

China is the largest importer on Gabonese timber products today. Other markets are in France, Japan, Morocco, and Israel.

Presence of skilled labour provided by the foreign investors as well as cheap semi-skilled labour force provided by the Gabonese nationals.

Improved technology evidenced by increasing use of power driven saws, tractors, logging arches and other machinery which are efficient in logging.

The construction of the Trans-Gabona is railway, crossing the country from east to west, opened up large portions of previously inaccessible forests. Regions easily accessed by roads, railway, or the Ogooue River are logged more intensively.

Establishment of many timber processing industries at Kango, Port Gentil, Owendo Port and Libreville ensure that logs are processed swiftly before export.

Gabon has been relatively stable for many years. This has enabled the forestry industry to develop through the attraction of both local and, foreign investors.

The desire by government to diversify the economy and reduce overreliance on the petroleum and agricultural industries.

The role of forestry ill the economy of Gabon

Timber and timber products represent over half of Gabon's export earning and will continue to be of great importance to the country's economy. Gabon is the largest exporter of raw wood in the region. Importing countries include France, China, Japan and Morocco. Forestry is second only to the petroleum sector in export earnings, at $332.6 million in 2000.

In Gabon, the government is the major landowner and logging concessions and logging permits are thus given by government. In addition, there are as many as 12 different forestry taxes, all of which provide revenue to government. Export taxes represent 70 percent of forestry taxes.

The forests provide raw materials for industrial development e.g. the large ply wood factory at Port Gentil, a giant sawmill at Kango and a Cellulose factory.

The development of the forestry industry has led to the generation of employment opportunities to people felling the trees, forest rangers, those involved in their transportation, processing, timber related industries and exports. Today, the forestry industry is the second largest employing sector providing jobs almost 28% of the working population. There has been improved standard of living by the nationals through income derived from working for the forestry industry.

The forestry industry has led the development of transport routes particularly roads, railways and ports that handle the timber products e.g. further development of forests exploitation in the interior has been dependant upon the construction of road and railway networks. Logging companies have also had to construct their own roads before they can extract the timber. These transport routes not only help the forestry industry but other sectors as well such as mining.

Forestry has stimulation of growth of urban centers and ports dealing in the processing and marketing of timber and timber products e.g, Ports Gentile and Owendo and towns such as Booue.

Through the preservation of large areas of forest land, Gabon's climate is characterized by heavy reliable rainfall supporting the growth cocoa, coffee, palm oil and peanuts for export.

The forests are at tourist attraction due the various plant species and the abundant wildlife consisting of 'animals such as elephants, gorillas, buffalo, chimpanzees, hippopotamuses, and okapis which attract tourist hence earning the country foreign exchange.

Timber sales to China, Japan, France and other countries as well as attraction of foreign investors has promoted international co-operation.

Forests have provided foodstuff to the population such as wild mushrooms, yams, and various nuts which have supplemented on the diet of the people of Gabon.

Forestry, has helped to diversify the Gabonese economy and reduce over reliance on the mining and agricultural sectors.

Forests have provided timber for the building and construction industry which has enable construction in the ports of Port Gentile and Owendo as well as towns like Libreville.

Various medicines are derived from forest plants such as moringa used in the treatment several diseases.

Gabon forests provide wood fuel used by the majority of people for cooking, fish smocking, and firing of bricks.

Forests are use as research grounds by lumbering companies and higher institutions of learning such as lectures and students of forestry of Universite Omar Bongo.

Improved technology brought in by the large European firms from France etc.

Short comings of the forestry in Gabon

They hinder the development of transport and communication routes. The roads and railway lines are difficult to construct in the thick impenetrable forests in the interior.

The forests habour dangerous pests and diseases which affect people Iiving nearthem as well as their animals and plants. Mosquitoes causing malaria, and tsetse flies; causing sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in livestock are common diseases in the forested regions of Gabon.

Forests habour wild animals which attack man and destroy his crops when they go beyond the forest boundaries e.g. elephants, buffalos, chimpanzees, hippopotamuses, crocodiles and large snakes.

In Gabon, logging is mainly carried out by large foreign firms which repatriate to their mother countries such as France and Portugal.

Timber processing industries lead to the pollution of the environment through the emission of dust, smoke and other toxic gases to the atmosphere e.g. the large ply wood factory and a cellulose factory based on forest resources found at Port Gentil.

Forest exploitation is difficult and risky as it is associated with loss of lives during felling.

Forest exploitation and the processing of forest products has led to the growth of urban centers and their associated problems such as unemployment, high crime rates and slum development e.g. Port Gentil, Port Owendo and Liberaville.

Environmental degradation especially where forests have been depleted like the coastal areas.

Tropical rainforests are seen as an obstacle in the expansion of agricultural land.

Some forests have few valuable trees species and therefore of low commercial value and un-economical to exploit.

Logs are often floated down River Ogooue to the processing centers at the coast. This interferes with fishing as well as fish breeding.

The 'forested landscape hinders the exploitation of mineral deposits.

Coniferous forests

These forests are also referred to as taiga or borial forests. These forests cover a broad belt of land and are chiefly in both North America and Eurasia. They are chiefly in the northern hemisphere in regions experiencing cold winters, short cool summers, alight summer rainfall, and winter precipitation in the form of snow. These conditions are mainly found in high latitudes between 45° to 60° North of the equator. The regions are found in the following regions.

a) North America

These areas include northern California, Washington, and Oregon in the USA, British Columbia in Canada and South Western Alaska. The coniferous forests extend southward from around the Great lakes into the Appalachian Mountains. The forests stretch from Virginia to Texas.

b) Northern Europe

This region covers Scandinavian countries of Norway, Sweden and Finland as well as the adjacent areas of northern Russia. Many areas in Europe, which formerly bore hardwood species, have been planted with coniferous.

c) Asia

Much of the northern Sibena' extending from the ural to the pacific coast.

d) Southern Continents

The western' coastland of southern Chile and southern parts of the Brazilian plateau are two major areas of South America having coniferous forests. South Africa and Austria have only small areas of coniferous forests.

The most common species of coniferous forests are pine, spruce, fir, larch, cedar, oak, arborvitae, cypress, Douglas fir, hemlock and juniper.

Characteristics of coniferous forests

The trees in coniferous forests occur in pure stands confined to only a few species e.g. pine, spruce, fir and larch. One single species may occur over vast areas.

The forests are evergreen throughout the year.

The trees straight trunks.

Trees are conical in shaped with downward-sloping branches to enable falling snow to slide off without breaking branches.

The trees are fast or quick maturing species. They often take less than 20 years to mature.

The trees grow close to each other and of moderate density, unlike the tropical rain forests, which are very dense.

The leaves are tiny and needle shaped with small surfaces to prevent excessive loss of water by transpiration.

The leaves have a wax covering on their surface and thick leathery structure to protect them from frost attack.

There are few tree species compared to the tropical rain forests.

The trees have shallow roots to survive the thin podzol soil and the frozen ground in winter;

Conifers yield cones instead of fruits. These have scales close together and seeds, which are thick, coated to survive in a region' deficient in heat and moisture.

The back of the trees is resinous. It stores food to survive the winter months and help to conserve moisture too.

Towards the poles the conifers became shorter, stunned, more dispersed and merge through the intermediate into tundra landscape.

Dominated by soft, light woods such as oak, spruce, birch and hemlock.

Factors that have favoured the exploitation of coniferous forests

Coniferous forests occur in pure stands. The presence of considerable stands of a single species makes it easier to locate and extract the timber. The easiest type of extraction is clear felling in which all the trees are removed.

The limited undergrowth in coniferous forests is an advantage in their exploitation.

The trees have small trunks with no buttress roots which makes it possible to cut the trees at ground level hence easy exploitation.

A wide range of machinery is used e.g. power saws, tractors and other heavy plant for transporting logs, stripping branches and propelling the logs on water. Modern technology has thus simplified the extraction of timber.

The demand for soft woods is continually expanding. Coniferous are the chief source of cellulose for the paper industry. Cellulose is also used in the synthetic textiles industry. Major coniferous forests are located near large markets for pulp and paper products such as U.S.A, Canada and the European countries.

In many countries where the coniferous forests occur like U.S.A and the European countries, the governments keep close control forest exploitation. Strict government supervision, even of the privately owned forests, means that conservation, replanting, the preservation of young trees, protective measures against diseases and pests and others as part of forest management are of high standard.

The smaller size and relative lightness of the logs, and the ability to clear a fairly large area at one time, make timber extraction in the coniferous forests easier than in tropical forests. The logs can be dragged easily over the seasonally frozen ground and also be floated down stream to pulp or saw mills. Transportation problems are also minimized for the logs can be floated directly to the mills.

Almost all the coniferous forests are near major industrial areas and developed countries where timber, paper and pulp products are all in constant demand. In Sweden and Finland lumbering is a major activity and timber supplies exceed domestic markets. In Britain and other European countries with little natural forests are easily 'accessible. Moreover, much of the timber trade between advanced countries is carried out not in the form of logs, but of pulp and paper, which are more easily transported. Similarly, U.S.A, which has the highest paper consumption, in the world, provides a ready market for pulp and paper products from Canada.

The developed countries such as USA, Canada and Norway have large, sums of money to inject in the development of forestry.

The availability of various forms of power such as hydro-electric power, thermal and others used in the lumbering industry.

Availability of a skilled labour force to man and run the industry.

Uses of coniferous forests

1.Sources of timber for furniture Making.

2.Naval stores: These are a group of products named from their former importance to the shipping industry and turpentine. They include resin, pitch, tar and turpentine. These products are derived from the resinous materials exuded from coniferous trees. Turpentine e.g. is used in the paint.

3.Tannin is a substance found in the bark of certain trees e.g. hemlock and is used in the conversion of raw hides into leather.

4.In terms of value, the most important use of coniferous forests is the pulp and paper industry.

5.Synthetic textiles: Wood cellulose is the basis of the synthetic textiles known as rayon. The chief source of cellulose is the spruce wood.

6.Source of timber for the Construction industry. This inc1ude:-

- Sawn wood in the form of planks, boards, beams and so forth in house building.

- Plywood and veneers:- Wood is to be cut into thin sheets which are subsequently glued together to form a light but strong material called plywood, which is much used for internal furniture and others.

- Fiberboards: These are made from pu1p or sawdust and other waste materials and are thus by products of the saw milling industries.

7.Best alternative use of land that is rugged and mountainous e.g. in British Columbia.

8. They yield materials for disinfectant and paint making industries. '

9.Recreational purposes e.g. picnics, walks and other cut door activities.

Case studies

Forestry in British Columbia

Canada is a world Leader in forestry and conservation. More than 10 percent of the world's forests are within her borders. British Columbia is a province of Canada, which is largely covered by coniferous forests.

Approximately 49.9 million hectares of land in British Columbia are considered productive forestland. About 96 percent of the forested land in the province is coniferous, giving British Columbia approximately half of Canada's total softwood inventory.

Principal tree species of coniferous forests include spruce, hemlock, Douglas and balsam firs, jack and lodgepole pines and cedar.

Figure 1: Hemlock

Figure 2: Douglous Tree

In British Columbia, major timber and timber processing industries are located along the coast in centers such as Vancouver, Prince Rupert, Kitimat and Victoria.

Sketch Map of British Columbia Showing the Location of Major Forest Areas and Processing Centers

F actors that have favoured the growth and development of the forestry industry in British Columbia

Physical factors

1.Availability of extensive forestland, about 64% of British Columbia is forested.

2.Much of British Columbia consists of a rugged mountainous landscape such as the Coastal Ranges and Rocky mountains. Because of this, other land uses such as agriculture and settlement are difficult. Such areas have been left to forests.

3.The presence of many valuable commercial species of trees as shown in the table below.

Timber: Harvests in British Columbia by Species the year 2000 (million cubic meters)

4.The cool temperate climate with ample rainfal1 and high humidity favour forest growth. Annual precipitation generally exceeds, 500 mm on the west coast of Vancouver Island but is less than 1,000 mm in the interior., Tree species such as western hemlock, Douglas fir, Sitka spruce and various cedars, grow rapidly in the mild, wet climate while in the dry lowlands of the interior, ponderosa and lodge pole pines, aspen and bunchgrass are characteristic.

5.Most areas have soils which are too thin to support arable farming hence used for forest growth e.g. in the Cordillera region. Only about 3 percent of the province's, total area is agricultural land which forced people to look for livelihood from forests.

6.British Columbia has a low population density of about 4.6 people per square kilometer (2006) a factor that has led to large land areas being left to forests.

7.The presence of large areas of single tree species making the location and felling to be done easily and cheaply.

8.The presence of many fast flowing permanent rivers, which enable the logs to be transported downstream easily and cheaply to the saw mills and factories especially in spring season e.g. Rivers, Fraser, Skeena, Nass, Stikine, Columbia and Kootenay all of which run toward the Pacific Ocean.

9.The ground surface is covered by snow during winter and this makes the transportation of logs by hauling them over the slippery snow surface using tractors easy.

10. Presence of many rivers such as Columbia, Kootenay and Peace, which are used to generate hydro electric power for the saw mills and timber processing industries at Vancouver, Prince Rupert and Kitimat.

11. Furthermore, the rivers such as Fraser, Nechako and Skeena provide an ample supply of water used in the pulp and paper industries at Kitimat, Vancouver and Prince George.

Human factors

1.Availability of large market for the soft wood products both at home and abroad. British Columbia not only supplies Canada's demands for sawn wood and timber products but also the market in western U.S.A., China, and Japan, where the expansion of industries is rapid and therefore high demand for timber.

2.High level of technology is used e.g., power driven saws, tractors, bulldozers and arches that make forest exploitation easy. On steep slopes for example, logs are skidded to a landing by a system of cables and pulleys mounted onto standing trees and driven by a machine called a cable yarder to overcome the difficult terrain. In addition, modern saw mills now use laser scanners and computer technology to determine the best cuts for maximizing the value and volume of boards from a saw log.

3.Favourable government policies of conserving forests and avoidance of careless and wasteful forestry practices, and attraction of foreign investors especially from USA.

4.Well-developed transport system by road, railway and water to transport log from the western parts of the country to processing centers on the west coast. Fraser and Skeena rivers are used to float logs to the Pacific coast while Trans-Canadian railways link the west coast to the interior.

5.Availability of large sums of capital to inject in establishment of timber processing industries, purchase of logging machinery, and general development of the industry. The industry is heavily financed by United States and British investments.

6.Availability of a skilled experienced labour force to deal with forestry such as loggers, backers and chocker men. This is enhanced by training from various institutions such as the Faculty of Forestry of British Columbia University. In addition, most settlements are along the coast thus providing skilled labour in the established pulp and paper, plywood industries and others.

7.British Columbia has been politically stable for very many years. This has enable the development of infrastructure such as transport routes, hydro electric stations as well as industries at Kitimat and Prince George.

8.Research is continuously carried out to develop the forestry industry. For example, well- equipped loggers wear safety equipment such as hard hats; ear protection, face screens and steel-toed boots have been developed. Modern technology in the felling, loading and transporting logs as well as their processing has been developed.

9.The forests are also of great cultural significance to Canada's native peoples and are considered as an important part of their national heritage by all Canadians.

Problems facing the harvesting of forest products in British Columbia

1.Fire outbreaks

One of the greatest problems facing the forestry industry in British Columbia is fire outbreaks, which destroy large areas of forestland. Most of the fires are started by tourists who do not put out their camping fire well and who .carelessly throwaway cigarette ends especially in summer.

2.During winter, the ground surface is covered by snow hindering the accessibility of some forests especially in the mountain regions such as Cordillera.

3.The discovery of many new uses of wood products has resulted into rapid forest exploitation. In recent years, there has been over-exploitation of the forests leading to their depletion.

4.British Columbia is a province, which is sparsely populated. There is therefore shortage of labour to work in the forestry industry.

5.Most of British Columbia consists of a rugged mountainous landscape, which makes the development of transport routes and forest exploitation difficult.

6.The harsh cold winters are a problem to lumberjacks.

7.Accidents occur when felling the trees, which lead to the death of the workers.

8.Insects and pests destroy the trees.

9.The forests once cut take long to regenerate which limits production on a sustainable basis.

10. In areas especially where trees clothe mountain or hill slopes, their removal encourages soil erosion and landslides.

11. Restriction of logging by environmentalists, and the indigenous people as well as creation of national parks in forest areas.

12. The industry has suffered severe competition from producers in areas where trees grow more rapidly than they do in British Columbia, and where environmental regulations are less stringent, and also where labour costs are lower.

Role of forestry to the economy of British Columbia

Forestry has led to the development of timber-based industries such as plywood production, furniture making and the construction of pre-fabricated building. The main centers are Vancouver, Price George, Kitimat and New Westminster.

Timber and timber products are exported thus earning foreign exchange. USA is the main importer of timber products from British Columbia other importing countries are China, Japan and United Kingdom.

Forest Product Exports - 2003

Commodity	$Millions	Percent
Lumber (softwood)	5,309	41.1
Pulp	2,757	21.3
Paper and paperboard	1,217	9.4
Selected value-added wood products Newsprint	915	7.1
Cedar shakes and shingles Plywood (softwood) Other	584	4.5
Plywood(Softwood)	386	3.0
Others	778	6.0
Total Forest Product Exports	12,932	100.0

1.Generation of employment opportunities either directly in the lumbering operations or indirectly in timber related industries mentioned above. In the Canadian economy, over 350,000 direct jobs are forest-dependent.

2.Provision of sawn wood and timber products to British Columbia and Canada as a whole for building and construction thus saving valuable foreign exchange that would otherwise have been used in the importation of such products.

3.The industry has attracted investment especially from U.S.A and this has helped to make the links between British Columbia and North West U.S.A very close. Furthermore, international co-operation have been promoted with countries importing British Columbia timber products such as China and Japan.

4.Source of government revenue through taxes imposed on the lumbering companies as well as the industries producing lumber, pulp, paper and others at Prince Gorge, Vancouver and Victoria centers.

5.Development of urban centers especially ports that handle and process the timber e.g. Vancouver, New Westminster, and Price Rupert.

6.The forestry industry has stimulated the development of hydro-electric power from the Fraser, Peace and Columbia River because of the huge integrated mills that have been set up in recent years.

7.Good current use of land that would otherwise be lying idle because of the rugged nature of relief and low population.

8.Lumbering has contributed to the development of transport routes particularly roads, railways and water transport e.g. the transcontinental Canadian, Pacific railways which connect the east coast to the west coast.

9.Diversification of the economy thus reducing over reliance on the mining of petroleum, natural gas, coal and gold as well as the fisheries sectors.

10. The forests modify the climate of the province through formation of rainfall which has supported agricultural activities such as grain cultivation in the Peace River region and Lower Fraser Valley.

11. Various animals are found in the forests of British Columbia such as grizzly bear, black bear, moose, caribou, elk, deer, bighorn sheep, and mountain goats which are, a great tourist attraction earning the province foreign exchange.

12. The forests in the mountainous north eastern and on the Rocky mountains protection of the land against soil erosion as well as silting of rivers and reservoirs.

13. Other uses of the forests include grazing, recreation, watershed protection, and visual enjoyment.

Short comings of forestry in British Columbia

1.Timber processing industries lead to the pollution of the environment through the emission of dust, smoke and other toxic gases to the atmosphere e.g. the lumber, ply wood, paper, paperboards and lumber factories at Prince Gorge, Kitimat and Vancouver.

2.Forest exploitation and the processing of forest products has led to the growth of urban centers and their associated problems such as unemployment, high crime rates and slum development e.g. in Vancouver, Victoria and Prince Rupert.

3.In British Columbia, a number of foreign companies are engaged in logging and tent to repatriate their profits to their mother countries such as USA, UK and France.

4.Logs are often floated down Rivers Fraser, Skeena and Columbia to the processing centers at the Pacific coast. This interferes with fishing as well as fish breeding especially the salmon fish.

5.The coniferous forests are seen as an obstacle in the expansion of settlement and agricultural land e.g. on the Vancouver Island and coastal regions.

6.The forests habour dangerous pests and diseases which affect people living near them as well as their animals and plants e.g. the tent caterpillars which destroy crops.

7.Some forest fires are very difficult to contain and destroy settlements and other properties near the forests.

8.Forest exploitation is difficult and risky as it is associated with loss of lives during felling.

9.Environmental degradation such as soil erosion especially where forests have been depleted like the coastal areas.

10. Increasing use of automated machinery to carry out lumbering and processing of logs has resulted in the creation of few jobs and hence unemployment problems.

11. The conservation of the forested landscape in remote Tatshenshini-Alsek area of northwestern British Columbia has hindered the exploitation of minerals in the region.

Forestry in Norway.

About 37 percent of the surface area in Norway is covered by forest. The total forested area amounts to 12 million hectares, including 7 million hectares of productive forest. 15 percent of the productive forest has been estimated as non-economic operational areas due to difficult terrain and long distance transport, which means that economical forestry, may only be operated in 50 percent of the forested area.

Largest tracts of forests are found along the Skagerrak, in the hinterland of Oslo, along the Glomma Valley and around Trondheim, The most important species are Norway spruce (47%), Scots pine (33%) and birch (18%). Approximately 80 percent of the forest is owned by families, mainly Farmers that manage their forest in combination with farming. State and community forests amount to 12 percent of the productive forest area, while 4 percent is owned by private companies.

Factors that have favoured the development of tile forestry industry in Norway

Physical factors

1.Norway as a whole is a barren mountainous country with strictly limited areas of valuable land for cultivation. Such areas have been put to' forestry as the best alternative land use.

2.Norway is located in the cool temperate climatic region, which favours the growth of coniferous forests. Rainfall is heaviest along the west coast exceeding 1000mm which decreases inland.

3.Presence of thin infertile soils especially in the mountainous regions which discourage agriculture. Such areas have been left under forests.

4.The existence of a great network of rivers so that transportation is a relatively easy matter.

5.River Glomma for instance, carries hundreds of thousands of logs every season to mills around the shores of lake Mjoseh.

6.The existence of many rivers used to generate hydro electric power for the timber industries e.g. at Tokka in the south east Rjukan west of Oslo.

7.Presence of many commercially valuable species of trees such as fir, pine, birch, oak, elm and beech in coastal regions, as well as in eastern and central Norway.

8.The trees in the forests occur in pure stands making the lumbering work easy. For instance, one tree species can occur over an extensive area permitting clear felling of trees.

9.The trees are light in weight e.g. pine, birch and bak which matches them easy to cut and transport.

10. Presence of many fiords with deep-sheltered waters which have enabled the construction of ports and cities. Norway's most important harbors and cities are situated along the fjords, which facilitates the processing and export of timber and timber products by water e.g. Oslo and Bergen.

Human factors

· The Norwegians have adopted a forest conservation policy, as indeed many neighboring countries to ensure a continuing supply of timber.

· Availability of large sums of capital to inject in the development of the forestry industry derived from revenues of petroleum and natural gas sales. The revenue is used to purchase lumbering equipments such as tractors and electric saws as well s establishing timber processing industries.

· Availability of a large market for the timber products both locally by the building and construction industry, as well as the fishing industry for boat and ship making, and abroad by countries such as China and USA.

· Well-developed timber industries which process timber into pulp and paper, cellulose, and plywood at Drammen and Mandal. The ship building industry is another consumer.

· High level of technology used in the cutting and processing of timber such as use of tractors, electric saws, steel cables and others all of which facilitate lumbering.

· Availability of skilled labour to work in the forestry industry. The winter season helps to provide extra labour for lumbering.

· Research is carried out and this has led to the use of fast maturing tree species.

· Better methods of lumbering and fire control have also been developed.

· Norway has been politically stable which has enabled long term investments necessary for the development of the forestry industry.

· Well develop transport facilities by road, rail and water to enable the exploitation of the forests and transportation of the timber to the processing centers and markets. Large quantities of timber and timber products are for example exported through the well-developed ports of Oslo, Bergen and Arendal.

· Favourable government policies such as investment in forestry and supportive policies of afforestation and re-afforestation.

· The forest conservation policy in the country ensures a continuing supply of timber.

Importance of the forestry industry to the economy of Norway

1.Source of raw materials for the timber processing industries especially the lumber, pulp and paper industries. Drammen is one of the most productive forest districts of Norway with important industries dealing in processing of wood pulp, cellulose, and paper. Other centers include Lillehammer,

2.A series of lumber towns and timber ports have developed like at the mouth of rivers entering Skagerrak e.g. Egersun, Mandal, Kristiansand, Larvik and Drammen.

3.Generation of employment opportunities in lumbering and timber industries if the felling of trees as well as in the established industries in centers such as Drammen and Larvik.

4.Timber is exported in form of logs, pit-props, and planks or in processes form of pulp, cellulose and manufactured paper to Japan, China and USA which earns the country foreign exchange.

5.Source of government revenue through taxes imposed on industries such as the pulp and paper industries in Skin and Sarpsborg, as well as taxes on incomes of people in the forestry industry.

6.The forestry industry has stimulated the development of infrastructure such as the tapping of hydro electric power from the rivers and construction of road and railway routes needed by the forestry industry.

7.Forestry has led to good current use of land that would otherwise be lying idle e.g. the rugged mountainous landscape.

8.Protection of the environment through controlling soil erosion and landslides in the mountainous regions.

9.Diversification of the economy thereby reducing over reliance on the mining and fishing sectors.

10. Provision of timber for the building and construction industry in cities such as Oslo and Kristiansand.

11. Habitat for wildlife which promotes tourism. Species of reindeer, polar fox, polar hare, wolf, musk-ox, and wolverine are common in the north and in the higher mountain areas. Moose, deer, fox, otter, and marten are found in the south and southeast.

Forestry in Finland

Finland is the world's third largest exporter of softwood plywood. Forests form one of the most valuable assets in the country with more than 70% of the land area of Finland being in the use of forestry. Productive forestland is the most valuable natural resource of Finland. Spruce, pine, and silver birch are the principal trees used to manufacture wood and pulp and 'paper products. The most productive and accessible forests lie in the central and southeastern parts of the country. A majority of the forest lands are owned by private individuals, rather than by large corporations or the government. Throughout much of Finland, timber is cut during the winter months, and in the spring it is floated down rivers and lakes to saw mills. The forests are easier to harvest than for instance, in tropical forests because in this forest zone there are fewer tree species and they form separate, homogeneous forests with barely any undergrowth. Temporary tractor routes facilitate transportation in winter.

However, the trees grow very slowly in this northernmost parts of the zone, the growth time might even be 140 years. One solution has been to import faster-growing trees from outside Europe. It can be said that no pad of forests and trees are wasted. By-products, such as sawdust and wood chips, can be used as a raw material in chemical pulp making.

Factors that have favoured forestry in Finland

Physical factors

1.The cool temperate climate favours the growth of the coniferous forests.

2.The most common type of soil in this zone is moraine, which is too hard for agriculture but perfect for forestry.

3.There are many rivers that enable the floating of logs to the coast where saw mills and pulp and paper factories are concentrated. The principal rivers include the Tomealven (Tornio), Muonio, Kemijoki, and Oulu.

4.Presence of extensive areas of forests. Over 70% of the total land area of Finland is under forests.

5.Presence of several species of trees of commercial value such as Scotch pine and Norway spruce.

6.The trees are heterogeneous. One tree species covers thousands of hectares making clear felling of trees the possible. This makes exploiting costs lower.

7.During winter the land is covered with snow which enables the logs felled to be dragged by tractors over the snow-slippery surface to the nearest waterway.

8.Presence of many rivers which have been harnessed to produce cheap hydro electric power for the wood processing industries e.g. Tornealven (Tornio), Muonio, Kemijoki, and Oulu Rivers.

9.Availability of large quantities of water from the numerous lakes and rivers used in the processing of wood e.g. soaking and bleaching of pulp and paper. Finland has more than 60,000 lakes, most of them lying in central and southern Finland in an area called the Lake District.

10. Finland's coastline is low, and deeply indented by small bays and inlets which have favoured the construction of ports to handle the forest products roe export e.g. Helsinki, and Turku.

Human factors

1.Relative political stability which has enabled production to take place and the development of the forestry industry.

2.Availability of sufficient capital derived from large deposits of minerals, as well as from financial institutions such as the World Bank for the development of forestry activities.

3.Availability of a large market for the sawn timber, wood pulp and paper. Leading purchasers of Finnish goods are Germany, the United States, the United Kingdom, China and Japan.

4.Favourable government policies such as regulation of the timber industry to maintain sustainable production of the country's valuable forest resources.

5.Well developed transport systems by water, rail and road. A system of canals connecting Finland's lakes with one another and with the Gulf of Finland, provides cheap and efficient transport for the forest industry.

6.Availability of a skilled labour force to work in the forestry industry.

7.High level of technology evidenced by use of modern forest exploiting machinery such as tractors, electric saws, steel towers and others.

8.The small population of about 5 million people has availed large land areas for forest development.

9.Research into better methods of logging and processing.

Artificial forests

These are forests found growing in an area and they are planted by man. They are not indigenous to the area e.g. forest plantations in Swaziland. They represent the world's best hope for meeting global wood requirements in the twenty-first century. Their growth is influenced by the nature of climate and soils among others. They are often of single tree species.

Forest Plantations in Swaziland

About 9% of Swaziland is under timber plantations. Sappi Usutu, owning more than half the plantations in Swaziland (70,000 ha), and the only pulp mill, employs about 3,000 people directly and indirectly. Over 1000 people are employed by Mondi Peak (formerly Piggs Peak) in two sawmills and 19,000 ha of plantations. Shiselweni, the third largest plantation area covers about 12,000 ha. The Mondi and Sappi plantations were originally established about 50 years ago by the Commonwealth Development Corporation (CDC) that also started the Usutu pulp mill at Bhunya,

Swaziland's Major Forest Plantations

Factors favouring the establishment of forests in Swaziland

Physical factors

1.The cool temperate climate favours the growth of forests. Rainfall is heavy ranging from 1000 - 2250 mm. Highest rainfall totals are received in the western mountains.

2.Temperatures are cool ranging between 6° -19°C due to the high altitude.

3.The hilly, mountainous and rugged nature of the landscape in the western parts of the country made settlement and cultivation difficult. It is therefore not surprising that most of the plantation forests are located in this region.

4.Swaziland is a highland region most of it being 100sq meters above sea level a height, which favours the growth of forest.

5.Presence of many rivers which are used to generate hydro electricity for the wood, paper and pulp industries such as Komati, Lusutfu, and Umbuluzi Rivers.

Human factors

1.Provision of sufficient capital by the Swazi Government and the Commonwealth Development Corporation to establish the forests, In addition, Europeans own more than half of the land in Swaziland and are responsible for the establishment of substantial plantations and economic development in the country

2.Introduction of tree species such as pines, wattle and eucalyptus which have a high growth rate Maturity is reached in about 15 years at least three times quicker than conifers in Sweden and Canada.

3.Development of industries which process timber products e.g. the industries at Mbabane that produce sawn and planed timber, block-hoards, pit props and telegraph poles The pulp and furniture making, industries are very prominent in the region.

4.The trees occur in pure stands making; their exploitation or harvesting easy.

5.The trees yield soft wood, which has a variety of uses them can be put to hence have a wide market.

6.Favourable government policies of attempting to use the land available that would otherwise be lying idle; because of being rugged in the most economic way.

7.High level of technology evidenced by forest cutting being done largely by mechanical saws, and horses and tractors drag the logs to the main service roads.

8.Well developed transport routes especially by road and railway. Swaziland has 294 km of railroads, linking it to the ports of Maputo in Mozambique and Richard's Bay and Durban in South Africa for export of products. These enable the transportation of the forestry products to ports for export,

9.Well planned and developed re-afforestation programmes that ensure sustained and increased production.

10. Large demand for the forest products in United Kingdom, Switzerland and South Africa. In addition, along with Botswana, Namibia, and Lesotho, Swaziland is a member of a customs union with South Africa, and the country is Swaziland's chief trading partner.

11. The need to conserve soils on the hilly slopes especially the Drakensberg Mountains from erosion

Contribution of forest plantations to the economy of Swaziland

1.Timber and timber products nearly all of the local timber production leaves the country as logs, pulp or rough cut planks and are exported to Japan, Taiwan, South Africa, United Kingdom etc. This earns the country foreign exchange. Timber products form about 14% of Swaziland's exports.

2.The forests are a source of raw materials for industries e.g. sawmill, pulp mills and the furniture industries Tannin extraction plants where established at Nblangano by Swazi Wattle Industries in partnership or joint venture with Swazi and South African investors. The raw material for-the two tannin plants is supplied by the regional Swazi Nation Land Wattle Growers Co-operative Societies in Shiselweni and Manzini.

3.Generation of employment opportunities for thousands of Swazi people working in the forestry industry. The forestry sector including the secondary processing sector provides employment to approximately 8000 people, which is 8 percent of total formal employment in Swaziland.

4.They protect the water catchment areas for rainfall and water in rivers for irrigation agriculture in the lower areas. The growing of sugar canes under irrigation in the lower lands depends on such water.

5.Conservation of soils especially from the hilly areas from erosion.

6.The forests are used for research or educational purposes.

7.They act as tourist attraction thus earning the country foreign exchange.

8.Planted forests undoubtedly play a great role in the economy of Swaziland. Planted forests are not of importance in Swaziland alone, but also in other African countries such as Nigeria, Gabon, Ethiopia, South Africa, Botswana and Lesotho.

Agro forestry

This refers to the growing of both trees and crops in the same field. It is inter-cropping done to provide fodder of foliage, firewood, shade and to protect the soil from erosion agents. It is also done to protect delicate crops against some very strong winds and ultra-violet rays of the sun e.g. cocoa and coffee, plants especially when they are still very young.

Likely examination on questions

1.The effective utilization of tropical rainforests has been mainly limited by human factors Discuss.

2.Explain the factors that have favoured the development of the forestry industry in either Canada or Swaziland.

3.To what extent have physical factors favoured the development of forestry in either British Columbia or Ivory Coast?

4.Assess the contribution of forestry to the economy of either Gabon or Finland.

5.Explain the importance of forestry the forestry industry to the economy of either Sweden or Algeria.

6.Account for the development of forestry in either Brazil or Norway.