FISHING

The term fishing embraces all aspects of man's pursuit of the aquatic animals in the seas and in land waters all over the world. It is one of the oldest occupations of mankind. Fish is an important item in the diet of many peoples of the world. With increasing human numbers, more efficient methods are being used to harvest fish and fishing is becoming increasingly an important occupation.

Distribution of fisheries

Although fish may be caught in the sea (marine fisheries) and in fresh water (inland fisheries) in any part of the world, major fishing grounds are located in the cool waters of the northern hemisphere. The only significant fishing regions in the southern hemisphere are found off the coast of Peru.

The concentration of fishing grounds in the high latitudes is due to the following reasons.

1. The abundant supply of plankton in the cool, shallow waters, which are rich in the mineral salts. Plankton is a collective term for microscopic plants and animals, which are found in the sea, water which fish feed on.

2. The cool climate. Marine life is best developed in oceans with a temperature below 20°C. In temperature regions the cold winters originally provided natural ice for preserving fish. In the tropics, fish rapidly deteriorate in hot, moist climate.

3. Physical environment influences such as the long indented coastlines of the Atlantic in the northern hemisphere have sheltered inlets and estuarine coasts making ideal sites for fishing ports and villages while tropical coastlines offer few suitable sites because of the short and smooth coastlines with few inlets.

Types of fish

Generally there are three kinds of fish species:

Fresh-water fish, which are found in inland streams, rivers and lakes.

Salt water fish: These spend their entire lives in the oceans and seas. There are two main groups of salt-water fish.

(a) Pelagic fish

These live at or near the surface of the seas and oceans to about 60 meters deep.

They normally move in colonies known as shoals. The most common species of this type are:

· herrings,

· mackerel,

· Sardines,

· tuna,

· pilenards,

· brisling

· anchovies,

· meuladen and others.

(b) Demersal fish

This is fish which lives at the bottom of the sea and oceans. It includes cod, haddock, halibut, plaice and others. Demersal fish live and feed on or near the bottom of seas or lakes (the Demersal zone). They occupy the sea floors and lake beds, which usually consist of mud, sand, gravel or rocks.

In coastal waters they are found on or near the continental shelf, and in deep waters they are found on or near the continental slope or along the continental rise.

They are not generally found in the deepest waters, such as abyssal depths or on the abyssal plain, but they can be found around seamounts and islands. The word demersal comes from the Latin demergere, which means to sink.

Demersal fish are bottom feeders. They can be contrasted with pelagic fish which live and feed away from the bottom in the open water column. Demersal fish fillets contain little fish oil (one to four percent), whereas pelagic fish can contain up to 30 percent.

Fresh Water Fish

The fresh water fish unlike the salt-water fish is of less commercial value and rarely swim in shoals. They include Nile Perch, tilapia, trout, black bass, and catfish.

They live in ocean-water but breed in fresh water. The most common, species of this type is the salmon fish. They hatch and begin their life in small, freshwater streams. After several al months, the young migrate to salt water and grow up there. At the age of five to seven years when they are mature, they swim upstream in coastal rivers to reach their spawning grounds where they were born. As they swim up-stream they navigate through strong currents, waterfalls, rapids, commercial fishing nets, and other obstacles during their return to spawn. They spawn, or lay their eggs, in the fresh water and the cycle is repeated.

Methods of Fishing

There are both traditional and modern fishing methods used in the fishing industry.

Traditional methods

Very simple methods are employed to catch fish especially in the shallow waters for subsistence purposes. These include spearing, shooting with bows and arrows and the use of poison. In most countries, the use of poison is now illegal. The most common methods in use now are discussed below. In most of these methods, fishermen use canoes and small boats some of which are fitted with outboard engines.

a. The line and baited hook method

This is one of the oldest fishing methods. This method involves using a single

b. Basket method

This can be line or fishing rods made of bamboo, fiberglass, or graphite. At the end of the rod is a hook with a bait (food) to lure fish. The hook varies between 3-5 centimeters. Each hook has a sharp point designed to pierce the mouth of a striking fish, and a barb, a small reverse point designed to keep the fish on the hook. When the fish tries to eat the bait, it is trapped. The lines are operated from a stationary or moving boat. In this method, only one fish can be caught at a time. It is used to catch fish such as mudfish, young tilapia, bagras, mackerel, squid and tuna.

This method is suited for shallow waters like in extrusive swamps as well as fast flowing rivers.

A basket is woven often from dried papyrus reeds and is usually cone shaped. The basket is left with a small hole and sometimes with a bait inside it. It is placed at the bottom of a lake or river. The unsuspecting fish swim into the basket through the small hole in an attempt to pick the bait. Once inside, the basket is lifted from the water and the trapped fish is removed.

c. The barrier trap method

This method is mainly used in slow moving water. One way the method is applied is that poles are stuck into the water on either side of the channel bank in order to narrow the passage. In the remaining opening, a cone shaped basket is placed on the bed of the channel in which fish is trapped. Mudfish and catfish is usually caught in this way. The barrier trap method is illustrated in the diagram below.

Figure 1: barrier trap

In this method, fishermen lay the nets down in the water and either lift it up at intervals or whenever they see fish passing over it. When used at night, lights are commonly used to attract the fish.

Modern methods of fishing

a. Drifting

This involves drift nets, which hang vertically in the sea like a net on a tennis court. They are fitted with floats on the upper edge and weights below to make the nets hang vertically. They are placed a few feet below the water surface. Drift nets are not set or fixed in any way, they are in fact 'mobile', and they are allowed to drift with the prevailing currents. The nets are however attached to powerful boats called drifters. They are used on the high seas for the capture of a wide range of fish including tuna, squid and salmon. The fish caught by their gills in the mesh of the net and are unable to move either backwards or forwards because their heads are caught and their bodies are too big to pass through. They are used to catch pelagic fish such as mackerel and herrings.

b. Trawling

Trawl nets are usually shaped somewhat like a cone are towed behind fishing boats. The mouth of the trawl net is kept open by otter boards. Trawler drags cone-shaped bag over sea bed

In addition, its mouth has floats at the top and weights at the bottom. The net is made stronger at the cod end in which fish are caught. A vessel called a trawler drags it along the seafloor. It is therefore used to catch demersal which if found deep in the ocean such as cod, halibut, haddock, flounder, shrimp and other types of fish. Once fish has been caught, the trawl net is then closed and the fish is emptied into the boat or ship. However, where the sea floor is rugged it is likely to damage trawl nets.

c. Purse seining

This is a general name given to the method of encircling a school of fish with a large net. The nets are similar to a trawl net except it has protruding ends on which ropes are tied. The nets are fitted with surface floats on one edge and weights at the bottom. The nets are towed to surround a school of fish by a small boat while one end of the net remains fastened to the main vessel by a rope. Once fish has been surrounded, the bottom of the net is pursed or closed, and the net is tightened by a power block aboard the seiner. The catch is then bailed or pumped aboard the seiner or boats. It is one of the most aggressive methods of fishing and aims to capture large, dense shoals of mobile fish such as tuna, mackerel, salmon; anchovies, menhaden and herrings.

The diagram below illustrates the purse seining method.

d. Haul seining

The haul seine nets have features of a trawl net. They are cone shaped and are towed behind two fishing boats. It is a fishing method of particular importance in the harvesting of demersal or ground fish including cod, haddock and hake and flat fish species such as plaice and flounder.

The fish are surrounded by warps (rope) laid out on the seabed with a trawl shaped net at mid-length. As the warps are hauled in, the fish are herded into the path of the net and caught. Effectiveness is increased on soft sediment by the sand or mud cloud resulting from the warps movement across the seabed. This method of fishing is less fuel-intensive than trawling and produces a high quality catch, as the fish are not bumped along the bottom as with trawling.

Figure 2: Haul seining

This of the most common method used for catching fish for commercial purposes especially from the fresh water sources in the tropics. The nets consist of a network of meshing which obstruct fish movements. Gill nets may be set at or below the surface, on the lakebed, or at any depth in between.

Surface floats mark the position of the nets while weights anchor the nets to the bed. These nets are set permanently in the lake and inspected early each morning to see if fish has been caught. With the gill nets permanently set, the net must be strongly made. Most net are made out of nylon. The gill net is big enough to allow fish's head through but not big enough for its body.

Once the fish swims into the net it is caught by its gills, being unable to move either backwards or forwards. The mesh size used depends on the species and size range of fish being targeted. Propelled motor boats are used to bring the fish caught from distant waters. They are also used to catch salmon and herring.

f. Long lining

This method today is now less popular than before because of the introduction of nets. However, it is still commercially used where the sea floor is rugged and likely to damage trawl nets. It is for example used to catch fish off the coast of Newfoundland in the north-west Atlantic. It involves the use of a rope or line that trails behind the boat. The rope or line is long varying from hundred of meters (about 400m) to several kilometers to which short lengths of lines, carrying baited hooks are attached at intervals.

The lines may be set vertically in the water column or horizontally along the bottom\fish hooked as it tries to eat the bait. Each hook has a sharp point designed to pierce the mouth of a smoking fish, and a barb, a small reverse point designed to keep the fish on the hook. The size of fish and the species caught is determined by hook size and the type of bait used. Bottom fish such as cod, haddock, halibut, swordfish, tuna and shark are caught on long lines. The lines are often set in the late afternoon and hauled the next morning. The diagram below gives a rough illustrates the use of the long line method.

MAJOR FISHING GROUNDS OF THE WORLD

North Atlantic Fishing Grounds

This region extends from Iceland to the Mediterranean shores. Fishing is highly organized by the European countries especially Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, Iceland and United Kingdom. In this region, we shall consider Norway and Sweden as our case studies.

Norwegian Fisheries

Norway is the largest fishing nation in Europe accounting for almost 5 percent of the world's total catch. Fishing is carried out in the Northeast Atlantic fishing ground. Norwegian ships visit the North Sea, Iceland, and the banks of Newfoundland and Greenland.

Trawling is one of the main method fishing used. Various species of fish are caught. Herrings form the largest total catch. Others species caught include Mackerel, Sprat or Brisling, Halibut, Pilchards, Cod, Haddock, Dogfish, Sardines and capelin. There are many important fishing ports such as Stavanger, Tromso, Trondheim, Bodo, Bergen, Alesund, Haugesund among others.

Factors that have led to the development of the Norwegian fishing industry

Physical factors

The nation has an extensive catch area for fish. South-western part of Norway borders to the North Sea, while further north lies the Norwegian Sea. Norway also borders to the Barents Sea; which is also an area for many big fish stocks. In addition, the fishing ground extends to the banks of Newfoundland in Canada. From this extensive region, large quantities of fish are caught.

Presence of an extensive and shallow continental shelf allowing plenty of light to penetrate to the sea bed hence promoting the growth of plankton and sustaining large fish populations e.g. along the Alesund, Bergen and Arendal coasts.

The favourable conditions on the continental shelf such as cool waters, which also contain a variety of mineral salts, result in the abundance of plankton, which attracts fish.

The presence of many rivers and streams joining the sea such as Glomma flowing into the Barents Sea and others like Aker, Namsen, Setesdal, Otra and Sira, which provide excellent breeding grounds for various fish species especially the salmon. The rivers also bring in nutrients to the sea which favour plankton growth and the existence of fish.

The presence of a very long coastline which is over 19,200 kilometers in length, and broken by deeply-penetrating fiord inland, provide sheltered water for fish breeding and good sites for the development of fishing ports and villages. Most of Norway's fishing ports are located at fiords e.g. Haugesund, Bergen, Trondheim, and Oslo ports.

There are offshore islands such as Lofoten Islands, which are over 2000 in number. The largest include Hinnoya, Andoya, and Langoya in the Vesteralen Island group and Austvagoy, Flakstadoya, Vestvagoya, and Moskeneseya in the Lofoten Island group. These increase the areas of fishing villages and fish catch.

The northerly position and cool waters are ideal for the growth of various fish species such as Mackerel-and Cod, and the cool temperate climate makes the preservation of fish relatively easy.

Approximately 75% of Norway is of high altitude with rugged terrain and steep slopes of unproductive land. This is mainly in the northern provinces of Nordland, Troms and Finnmark. The poor agricultural resources such as poor soils and rugged terrain have driven people to look for a livelihood from the seas,

The warm North Atlantic drift which blows on the western coast results in mild winters and ice-free harbours, e.g. at Stavanger and Bergen, which enable fishing to be carried out all the year round. It enables ice to melt and this also provides useful minerals for the growth of plankton.

There are many forests which include the thick boreal coniferous forests in coastal regions and in the valleys of eastern and central Norway. These forests provide raw materials for ship building as well as wood fuel for fish smocking.

The existence of various species of fish of commercial value such as herrings, mackerel, cod, whitefish and prawns has been a great boost to the Norwegian fishing industry.

Her geographical location in Western Europe makes her within relatively short distances to major markets in Sweden, Denmark, Germany and other European countries.

Human factors that have led to the development of the Norwegian fisheries

More than three-quarters of all Norwegians live at or near the Coast within about 16 km of the sea. These settlements are marine oriented and provide skilled labour in fishing and fish processing.

The Norwegian have a long sea fearing tradition in the Norwegian and North Seas from times of Vikings and this encourages them to become sailors and fishermen.

The ship building industry, long established in Norway, helped the development of fishing enterprises.

Well-developed fishing technology. The Norwegian fishing fleets are highly mechanized and modern fishing methods such as trawling, seining and lines are extensively employed. The high technology is further evidenced by use of modern fishing vessels which are highly mechanized and automated. Some fleets are made up of large freezer trawlers or factory trawlers that catch, process, and store the fish for weeks at sea and then deliver their catch hundreds or thousands of kilometers from the fishing grounds in prime condition.

Availability of large sums of capital derived from the export of petroleum and natural gas over the years, which have been injected in purchase of modern fishing vessels, establishment of fish processing industries, research and the overall development of the fishing industry. In addition, the state works with the banking sector to channel financial resources and loans to various industries.

Availability of a large market in the rich neighbouring European countries such as Sweden, Belgium, Netherlands and the European Union as a whole and countries in Asia of China as well as in North America. In particular the Catholic countries of Europe such as Italy, Belgium, Spain and Ireland and those in South America such as Mexico, Peru and Chile offer a large market for fish.

The establishment of fish processing industries has helped in the processing of fish and sending it to distant markets e.g. fish canning industries in centers such as Stravanger, Bergen and Alesund.

The fishing industry has highly developed co-operatives in the fishing centers such as Bergen, Tromso and Haugesund engaged in research, availing financial loans, as well as processing and marketing of fish.

Well-developed transport by water, railway, air and road to transport market the fish caught.

The coastal areas such as Oslo and Bergen where most of the population areas live are well developed with water transport and railway routes to market the fish. The well developed air transport enables fish to reach distant markets in Asia and South America.

Introduction of fish farming especially, of salmon in centers such as Bergen. At the hatcheries, salmon eggs are collected and young produced under controlled conditions. These have been used to supplement wild salmon populations for commercial purposes.

The government has helped finance the development of a fish-farming industry particularly of salmon and sea trout.

facing the Norwegian fisheries

Spring is the busiest fishing season, but also most hazardous because of the stormy weather. Causality rates are therefore high.

The low quantity of fish. This is because of the migration of fish. For example, herrings move from north to south in the waters off the coast from summer until the end autumn.

Norway relies heavily on fishing and this is leading to over fishing and reduction in fish stocks.

Fishing by alien vessels is often restricted over a variable distance from land. However, improvement of fishing craft and equipment meant that some fishing grounds were rapidly being depleted. Many British and German vessels for instance were fishing in the rich ground of Norway. In order to prevent this, Norway extended its fisheries control but like other countries is restricted in extending its fishing grounds beyond certain levels.

Pollution of the waters by industrial wastes dumped into the sea, which leads to the death of fish. In addition, acid rain which stems from sulfur dioxide emissions originating mainly in the United Kingdom has damaged many of Norway's water bodies e.g. many Norwegian lakes can no longer support fish

Alternative employment opportunities offered especially in industry has tended to attract labour force from the fishing industry.

Small home market due to a small population of about 5 million people.

Salmon stocks have declined due to dam construction, pollution and silting of rivers all of which affect migratory routes and fish feeding.

Importance of fishing to the Norwegian economy

Fishing provides employment to over 30,000 people either directly or indirectly in form of catching, fish processing and marketing and in other fishing related activities in the fishing ports of Bergen, Alesundand Stavanger.

Fish is exported in various forms as frozen, salted, dried, pickled and canned to various countries such as France, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, Sweden and others thus earning the country foreign exchange.

Fishing has led to the development of ports. The port of Haugesund is the greatest Norwegian herring port and exports cured or salted herrings to many parts of the world. Other ports include Stavanger, Hammerfest, Bergen and Tromso.

Fishing has stimulated the development of industries dealing in fish canning, and by products such as cod liver oil, fish meal, fertilizers, and glue from fish waste. Various industries in Stavanger specialize in the canning of brisling fish: Inferior or undersized fish are converted into fish meal for animal feeding or ground and used in the manufacture of fish manure. Other industries deal in the manufacture of ships and their servicing used by the fishing industry.

Fishing is an important source of government revenue through taxes imposed on fishing processing and exporting companies as well as taxing the incomes of workers in the fishing industry.

Fishing has led to the diversification of Norway’s economy thereby reducing over reliance on sectors such as mining, manufacturing and forestry for income and development.

Fishing has provided Norwegians a source of food rich in proteins in ports such as Bergen, Oslo and in other cities.

Inferior or undersized fish are used in the manufacture of feeds and fertilizers, which promote the agricultural sector in the eastern valleys north of Oslo and the areas around Trondheim.

Fishing or angling is one of the most popular forms of recreation in Norway. People fish from the shore waters in the Norwegian and North Sea using boats and simple tools such as a rod, a reel, fishing line, hooks and lures. This type of recreation also attracts tourists thus earning the country foreign exchange.

Fishing has promoted international relationships through trade in fish and purchase of fishing equipments between Norway and other countries such as United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Sweden, United States and others.

Fish is used in the manufacture of medicine, lubricants and cosmetics. Tyramine used to raise blood pressure is derived from fish. Eating fish helps to prevent heart diseases while cod-liver oil, is frequently prescribed by doctors as a preventive measure against deficiency diseases, particularly in babies.

Development of infrastructure such roads, water and railway lines linking the fishing ports of Stavanger, Lofoten Islands and Iceland.

Short comings of fishing in Norway

The increasing global demand for fish over the past several decades has increased the pressure to harvest more and more fish. In Norway this has resulted in over-fishing and depletion of the fish stock in the Norwegian and North Seas.

The introduction of modern fishing equipments which are highly automated has led to a reduction in the number of jobs created.

Fishing has contributed to the pollution of the environment through a number of ways. Oil spills from fishing vessels pollute the water causing fish kills in the North and Norwegian Seas. Established fish processing industries in Bergen, Stavanger and Alesund pollute the atmosphere.

The development of fishing ports and associated urban centers such as Bergen and Stavanger has resulted is several urban-related problems of congestion, unemployment, pollution and high crime rates.

Deforestation is carried out in the thick boreal coniferous forests along the coastal areas to provide timber for the manufacture of fishing boats and ships as well as providing wood fuel for fish smocking. This has contributed to increased greenhouse gases and global warming.

Fish sales suffer from price fluctuations which affect the incomes received. In addition, competition from other international fishing nations like Japan, China, and Thailand helps to keep prices offish low because of flooding the market.

Norway fishes a lot in international waters and conflicts often occur with other fishing nations such as Sweden and The Netherlands in the international waters.

Foreign companies which have invested in the fishing tend to repatriate their profits to their mother countries.

G IN SWEDEN

Sweden like Denmark, Germany, Belgium and Netherlands participates in the North Sea and Baltic Sea fisheries. In addition to marine fishing, inshore fishing takes place from the numerous lakes and rivers. Various species of fish are caught the most important being herrings, sprat, cod, and whiting. The chief fishing ports are Goteborg and Malmo. Other fishing ports include Kalmar, Dannemora, Soderhamn, Sundsvall, Umea and Skelleftea.

Factors that have favoured the development of fishing in Sweden

Physical factors

Sweden has numerous fishing grounds ranging from seas, lakes to rivers. The North and Baltic Seas, and the Gulf of Bothnia are the most important fishing grounds. In addition the country has more than 100,000 lakes such as Siljan, Malaren and Hjalmaren which provide fish. The principal rivers include the Angermanalven, Dalalven, Trysilelva, Umealven, and Tornealven.

The existence of a long coastline approximately 3,220 km in length running from Malmo via Stockholm and Sundsvall to Lulea. This provides an extensive area for carrying out fishing.

The long coastline is indented with numerous inlets which are sheltered thus providing good sites for the development of fishing ports and villages such as Goteborg and Malmo as well acting as sites for fish breeding.

Sweden has an extensive hallow continental shelf with a lot of plankton which attracts fish and fishing activities. In addition, it provides an excellent breeding ground for fish.

There is plenty of plankton which acts as food for fish. The availability of plankton has been favoured by the North Atlantic Drift which brings in important minerals for plankton growth. In addition, several rivers from the interior such as Dalalven, Trysilelva and Umealven bring nutrients to the North and Baltic Seas which favour the growth of plankton.

Existence of various species of fish of commercial value. Principal marine varieties include cod, mackerel and herring while freshwater varieties include pike, perch, and trout, as well as numerous other species popular with people who fish. Salmon are found in both fresh and salt water.

Climate has favoured fishing in several ways. The cool temperate climate favours the existence of fish species which prefer cold water such as cod, as well as the preservation of fish. In addition, natural ice especially during winter is used for preservation thus helping to lower costs of preservation.

Sweden has the largest timber reserves in Western Europe and these provided raw materials for the development of the ship and boat building industry to provide the fishing vessels.

Presence on numerous islands such as Oland and Gotland Islands which provide sites of fishing ports and villages.

The Baltic Sea provides sheltered waters for fish breeding.

Human factors

Presence of a wide market for the fish caught at home and abroad. Sweden has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world. The high wage levels and living standards create a large market for the fish and fish products. In addition, there is ready market in the neighbouring countries of Germany, France, Netherlands, Spain, Belgium and EU as a whole.

Availability of large sums of capital from government, wealthy Swedish nationals and financial institutions used for the purchase of modern fishing vessels such as trawlers, research in fishing technology, development of transport routes.

Use of high-level technology in terms of using trawlers in fishing which catch large quantities of fish from the Baltic Sea, refrigerators in fish preservation, and well-developed processing industries for canning the fish.

Availability of a highly skilled labour force to engage in fishing, processing, and marketing at the fishing centers of Malmo, Kalmar and Sundsvall.

Well-developed transport network by road, railway, water and air for the distribution and marketing of fish. Inland waterways include the Gota Canal, which connects the east and west coasts of Sweden. Stockholm and Goteborgare the leading seaports and from them numerous ferries ply the waters between Sweden and its neighboring countries of Denmark, Poland, Germany, Finland and the Netherlands.

Favourable government policy of promoting diversification of the economy thereby reducing over reliance on sectors such as mining, manufacturing and forestry.

Introduction of fish farming which has increased fish production and breeding which has enabled the restocking of over fished waters such as the North Sea.

Use of several effective preservation measures such as canning, freezing, salting and others such that the fish can reach in both near and far markets while still in good condition.

Today, Sweden is noted for its political stability and neutrality in foreign affairs which has enabled the fishing industry to develop without any ravages of war, as well as opening up of her markets worldwide.

Research is carried out to improve the fishing technology. For example, it has, led to the development of modern fishing methods such as trawling, modern preservation methods such as canning, and the aquaculture.

Availability of good storage facilities which house large quantities of fish at Malmo and Goteborg.

North West Atlantic Fishing Ground

This region is located along the eastern shores of Canada and U.S.A. The region has a long coastline of 12,000 km with a fishing area of not less than 520,000 sq kilometers. It consists of Newfoundland, the easternmost province of Canada. Newfoundland is an island and Labrador is on the mainland of Fishing grounds Canada. In addition, lying off southeastern coast of the island of Newfoundland, is a region consisting of several banks, the largest being Grand Bank, that rise from the continental shelf.

Cod was the chief catch; however, in 1992 a ban on cod fishing was passed by the federal government because of years of over fishing. Today Atlantic salmon, flounder, turbot, halibut, crab, lobster, shrimp, and herring are the primary catches. The chief fishing ports include St. John, East Port, Portland, Halifax, Kentville, New Haven, Dartmouth and Tignish.

Major fishing Ports

The vast continental shelf around the ports of Boston, Portland, East Port and St. John provides an excellent breeding ground for fish.

Existence of a long indented coastline with numerous well-sheltered bays, fiords and estuaries which have provided excellent sites for the development of fishing ports such as Halifax, Portland and Boston. The indented coastline also offers ideal sites for breeding fish such as halibut, hake and herrings.

The presence of many islands such as Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward, which increase the area tor fishing as well as offering sites for the development of fishing ports e.g. Halifax on the Nova Scotia Island.

The cold Labrador Current crosses most of the banks, and the warm Gulf Stream flows along the eastern part of the region. The mingling of the two currents, plus the shallowness of the water, provides a favorable environment for nutrient enrichment and growth of plankton, on which fish depend for food.

Many rivers empty their waters into the North Atlantic Sea e.g. River St. Lawrence and Charles River. These rivers bring mineral nutrients to sea which facilitates the growth of plankton which attracts fish and fishing activities.

The Warm Gulf Stream flowing in a generally northeastern direction along the coasts of Boston, New Haven, Halifax, the Grand Banks, to the east and south of Newfoundland and Labrador thus enabling fishing activities to go on all the year.

Existence of numerous fish species of commercial value e.g. the Grand Banks are one of the world's leading fishing grounds especially for cod, mackerel, haddock, herrings, halibut and others.

The cool temperate climate not only favours the existence of many fish species such as cod, haddock, herrings and mackerel for large-scale fishing but also the preservation under natural conditions and storage of fish.

The strategic location on the eastern coast of North America nearness to Europe attracted many other countries such as England, France, and Portugal to carry out fishing in the region.

The presence of large stretches of virgin, temperate forests found by the early settlers provided timber for the construction of sailing vessels and fishing craft. The timber also provided materials for barrels and boxes for the packing and preservation of fish.

In Canada, the limited natural resources on land have driven the people to the sea. There are few minerals, agricultural land is restricted and the growing season is short.

Human factors

With a population of over 300 million in USA and 33 million in Canada there a large market for the fish caught. The vast market is especially in the urbanized cities of Toronto, Quebec, Montreal, Boston, Portland and Boston.

Modern technology involving the use of modern trawlers and drifters, equipped with trawls, seines, drift nets and along lines enables the exploitation of the coastal and distant waters to the fullest extent by Canadian and American vessels.

The well-established ship building industry especially in the New England states port such as Boston, Gloucester, Portland and Saint John's which have provided fishing vessels for use in the North Atlantic Ocean.

Availability of large sums of capital from Canadian, American and other fishing firms to develop the industry in terms of purchase of fishing vessels, modern fishing equipment like trawlers, and establishment of fish processing industries among others.

Availability of skilled man power to deal with fishing, processing and marketing at the centers, of Halifax, Portland, Boston and St. John.

Establishment of fish processing industries which transform fish into fish meal, fish oil and other products such as fertilizers and chicken feeds at Halifax, Boston and Sydney.

Well developed transport routes for marketing the fish e.g the St. Lawrence Seaway enables fish to be transported to large cities in the Great Lakes region and along the seaway such as Chicago, Cleveland, Duluth, Montreal, Quebec and others.

The region has been politically stable for years which has attracted investors in. the fishing industry not only from USA and Canada but also from European countries such as France, England and Portugal.

Favourable Canadian and USA government policies which have supported the development of the fishing industry such as development of transport routes, building of ports such as Boston and development of power resources for the fish processing industries.

Modern storage and refrigeration facilities that accelerate the catching of fishing.

The main problems facing the fishing industry in the North Atlantic Ocean region.

Depletion of fish stocks due to over fishing e.g. of cod fish in the Labrador and Newfoundland region.

Pollution of water through the discharge of industrial wastes and oil spills from fishing vessels which kills the fish.

Wind blowing over the Warm Gulf Stream and. the cold Labrador Current produces for the areas of Halifax, Boston and St. John. The fog results in poor visibility and ships often run into one another. However today vessels are equipped with radar, which can see through the fog.

Shortage of labour supply to work in the fishing industry due to attraction by highly paying industrial and service sectors in Boston and New Haven.

Competition for fish in the territorial waters between Canadian, American and visiting fishing vessels from England, France and Portugal.

There are various dangers associated with fishing at the sea such as great storms which result in the capsizing of fishing vessels hence loss of lives and fish caught.

Fishing in Canada

Fishing is an important activity in Canada. There are two main sources of fish i.e. the North West Atlantic fishing grounds and the North East Pacific fishing ground. In the North East Pacific fishing ground, fishing is carried out mainly from the Province of British Columbia. Important fishing ports include Vancouver, Prince Rupert, Skagway, Kitimat, and Victoria. Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands are also important fishing grounds in this region. Principle species of fish caught include cod, crab, lobster, salmon, herrings, mackerel, and scallops.

In the North East Pacific waters, fishing is carried out from Newfoundland, Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton Island, and Anticosti Island. Major fishing ports include Halifax, St. John, Sydney and Comer Brook. Fish species such as cod, mackerel, salmon, herrings, haddock and others are caught.

In addition to the above, fishing is also carried out in inland waters especially lakes and rivers.

Major lakes include Huron, Erie and Superior which are part of the Great Lakes, Lake Winnipeg, Great Slave Lake, Lake Athabasca, Lake Manitoba, and Lake of the Woods. Rivers used as a source of fish include St. Lawrence River, Hay, Skeena, Fraser and Yukon. Fish species include whitefish, trout, salmon and eel fish. The Skeena and Fraser rivers are important spawning grounds for the salmon fish.

Factors that have favoured fishing in Canada

Physical factors

Presence of indented coastlines with sheltered waters offering good sites for the development of fishing ports and villages e.g. Prince Rupert, Skagway, Vancouver and Quebec in the North East Pacific fishing. The indented coastline also offers sheltered waters for fish breeding.

Presence of many offshore islands, which have promoted fishing in several ways: They increase the area of fishing, offer good sites for the development of labours as well as acting as breeding grounds for fish e.g. Vancouver Island, Queen Charlotte Island on the Pacific coast as well as Newfoundland and Nova Scotia on the Atlantic coast.

Some regions are mountainous which limits arable farming and other forms of land use. This has forced people to look for a livelihood from the sea. For example British Columbia is a Province of Canada with the Coastal Ranges and the Rocky Mountains. These have thin, infertile soils unable to support agriculture. This has driven people to the sea.

The meeting of warm and cold ocean currents creates ideal conditions for the growth of plankton which fish feeds on. The warm North Pacific Drift meets the cold California current in the North East Pacific waters while the warm North Atlantic current meets the cold Labrador Current in the North West Atlantic waters. The abundance of plankton attracts large quantities of fish.

There are many rivers carrying nutrients to the sea which favour plankton growth. River Skeena and Fraser flow to the Pacific Ocean coast, while River St. Lawrence and Charles flow to the Atlantic Ocean coast. The rivers such as Fraser and Skeena are also used as spawning grounds for the salmon fish.

The cool temperate climate along the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador favours the preservation of fish under natural conditions. This enables the transportation of fish while still fresh to markets. The climate also favours fish breeding.

Presence of large stretches of temperate forests. The forests are exploited to provide timber for the construction of fishing vessels and crafts, barrels and boxes for packing and others.

Presence of various species of fish of commercial value which include pelagic fish such as herrings, mackerel, tuna and sardines and demersal fish such as lobster, halibut, cod and haddock as well as anadromous fish that hatched in fresh water, then spend their adult lives in the sea before returning to their native stream to spawn.

Human factors

Availability of large sums of money to inject in the development of the fishing industry from timber, minerals and farm produce over the years to purchase modern fishing vessels such as trawlers, construction of fishing ports such as Prince Rupert and Halifax as well as in other fishing related activities.

High level of technology evidenced by use of modern fishing equipment. The methods used for catching fish include purse seining and trawling. These enable the catching of large quantities of fish.

Most settlements are near the coasts hence availability of labour to work in the industry. Because of the long experience in fishing activities, the labour is highly skilled.

Presence of a large market for fish not only in Canada but also in other countries such as USA, Japan and European Union countries. The North West Atlantic fishing grounds are strategically located to reach the large markets of Western Europe.

Well-developed transport system by road, railways, water and air. These enable fish to reach any destination easily. The St. Lawrence - Great Lakes navigation system enables fish caught, in the North West Atlantic Ocean fisheries to reach the industrial cities in the region such as Chicago, Toronto, Hamilton, Cleveland, Buffalo and others easily.

Canada has had a peaceful political climate for a long period of time. This has enabled the fishing industry to develop without any ravages of war.

Presence of good storage facilities with refrigeration in centers such as Vancouver, Skagway and Halifax, which encourage the catching of large quantities of fish.

Favourable government policies such as the endeavor to diversify the economy of Canada so as to reduce over reliance on the mining, forestry and manufacturing sectors.

Establishment of organizations that control the fisheries to encourage fishing on a sustainable basis. The federal Department of Fisheries and, Oceans is responsible for regulating, developing, and conserving Canada's commercial fisheries. In the international waters of the Atlantic Ocean the fisheries are regulated by an international body called the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO). This body allowed Canada to control fishing within 200 nautical miles or 370 km. NAFO recognizes Canada's right to enforce its regulations to protect fish stocks that are partly within and partly outside this limit.

Research is continuously carried out to improve on the methods of catching fish, preservation, storage and marketing of fish at Prince Rupert, Vancouver, St. John and Providence. This has greatly improved the fishing industry.

The Roman Catholic Church is by far the largest single denomination, representing 43 percent of the Canadian population. Most of these live in Quebec. In the fasting season, Catholics demand large quantities of fish since they do not eat beef at that time.

The Canadians have had a long sea fishing tradition. There is therefore a skilled body of people to deal in fishing, its processing as well as marketing e.g. at Vancouver and Prince Rupert.

Establishment of fish processing industries which deal in processing fish into fish-meal, fish oil and fertilizers at Vancouver and Halifax.

Summary of importance of the fishing industry to Canada

· Fish is exported and this earns the province foreign exchange.

· Generation of employment opportunities.

· Source of raw materials to fish processing industries e.g. the canneries at Vancouver and the fertilizer industries.

· Source of food rich in proteins, which help to improve people's diet.

· Fishing has stimulated the growth of ports and urban centers such as Vancouver, Prince Rupert, Kitimati along the coast.

· Development of industries producing feeds, oil, ship building etc.

· Revenue to government through taxes imposed on fishing companies.

· Fishing has contributed to the diversification of the country's economy.

· Fishing is a tourist attraction e.g. game fishing, which earns the province foreign exchange.

· It has encouraged the development of infrastructure e.g. roads and railway lines.

· The industry has led to the promotion of international relations between Canada as a whole and other countries.

· Recreation e.g. game fishing.

NORTH WEST PACIFIC FISHING GROUNDS

The North West Pacific from the Bering Sea to the East China Sea is the world's greatest fishing region. The region includes several seas such as Sea of Japan, East China Sea, South China Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea, and Philippine Sea. The countries that carryout fishing in this vast area include Japan, China, Russia, North and South Korea, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam and Philippines.

Among the species caught are sardines, bonito, crab, shrimp, salmon, pollock, mackerel, squid, clams, saury, sea bream, tuna, and yellowtail. Fish farming is a very important activity in Japan and China.

Japan's fishing industry is one of the largest not only in the region but also in the world, with a total fish catch of 5.5 million metric tons. We shall therefore consider Japan and China as our case study from the North West Pacific Ocean fishing ground.

FISHING IN JAPAN

Japan's fishing industry accounts for about 15% of the world's output. Fishing is carried out from the Sea of Japan, East China Sea, and Philippine Sea.

A part from these fishing grounds near Japan, the country also participates in fishing in international waters all over the world. Japanese fishing fleets for example go up to the North East Atlantic waters near Europe and North East Pacific waters near USA and Canada. Coastal fishing by small boats, set nets, or breeding techniques contributes about one-third of the industry's total production, while Oya Siwo current offshore fishing from medium-sized boats accounts for more than half of the total. Deep-sea-fishing by large vessels operating far from Japan makes up the remainder.

Various species of fish are caught including sardines, herrings, mackerel, Salma, yellow tail, cuttle fish; tuna, shellfish and crustaceans. In addition whales and pearls are caught. In fact Japan is among the world's few remaining whaling countries. Although it officially outlawed commercial whaling in 1986 in conformance with an international ban on whaling, Japan continues to hunt whales-in waters near Antarctica, saying this is for scientific purposes. Japan's largest lakes, Biwa and Kasumiga-ura are important sources of fish and other freshwater species.

Major fishing ports include Tokyo, Yokohama, Kawasaki, Osaka, Kobe, Hakodate, Nagoya and Kagoshima. All these ports are located between Hokkaido to Kyushu.

Factors that have favoured the development of Japan's fishing industry

Physical factors

Presence of a very long coastline totaling 29,750 km in lengths thus providing a very extensive area for fishing.

Japan's coastline is highly indented with numerous bay sand well-sheltered inlets, which provide good sites for the development of fishing ports and villages e.g. Tokyo Bay-at Tokyo and Yokohama, Ise Bay near Nagoya, and Osaka Bay at the Kobe-Osaka metropolis. The well sheltered bays are also sites for aquaculture centers e.g. at Osaka, Nagoya and Tekyor.

Japan is made up of four main Islands namely Honshu which is the largest followed by Hokkaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku. Together the four main islands make up about 95 percent of Japan's territory. More than 3,000 smaller islands constitute the remaining percent. This has made the Japanese a traditionally sea faring people which encouraged them to become fishermen.

Japan is situated on the broad continental shelf of the North West Pacific, which provides ideal conditions for the growth of plankton, which fish feed on.

The meeting of warm Kuroshio (Kuro Siwo) and cold Oyashio (Oya Siwo) currents also hell produce ideal conditions for plankton growth. Pelagic and demersal fish are therefore in abundance.

Figure 3: Salma Fish

The warm Kuroshio Current provides ideal conditions for fishing all the year round because the fishing grounds are free of ice.

Mountains dominate Japan's landscape, covering 75 to 80 percent of the country. These mountains limit agricultural land. Arable farming and livestock farming have always been minor and fish accounts for 60% of the protein diet.

Forests cover over 50 percent of Japan's land area. The presence of these forests e.g. in Hokkaido has encouraged the development of the ship building industry.

Presence of the Sea of Japan, East China Sea, as well as extensive areas extending to the North East Pacific Ocean and North East Atlantic Ocean means a large area for fishing.

Existence of a wide variety of fish species of commercial value such as sardines, herrings, mackerel, salmon, yellow tail, cuttle fish, tuna, shellfish and crustaceans in the sea of Japan, East China sea as well as the North West Pacific Ocean waters as a whole.

The cool temperate climate along the coasts of Kyushu, Hokkaido, and Honshu favours the preservation of fish under natural conditions. This enables the transportation of fish while still fresh to markets. The climate also favours fish breeding.

Many rivers flow to the sea carrying nutrients which favour plankton .growth e.g. Kushiro, Yodo and Shinano Rivers.

Human factors

Modern technology is used for instance the fishing fleets are complete with refrigeration plants, floating canneries and processing facilities. Tuna, salma and demersal fish are caught and processed on the spot before returning to the shores.

Figure 4: Tuna fish specie

Availability of large sum of money to invest in the fishing industry from the American government after World War II, and funds generated from the manufacturing and service sectors. Modern fishing vessels and fishing methods are thus employed.

Presence of large market for fish as fish is second only to rice as a: staple in the Japanese diet.

Japans population exceeds 130 million people and Tokyo alone has over 8 million people and Yokohama 3 million people. In addition, there is a large market in the surrounding Asiatic countries like China, North and South Korea etc.

Japan has for long been politically stable. This has enabled long term investments necessary for the developed of the fishing industry

Presence of a large supply of a skilled labour force. There are probably more people engaged in the fishing in Japan than any other pad of the world.

Presence of many fish processing industries at Tokyo, Hakodate, and Osaka which process fish into fish meal and fish oil. The inferior fish is not used as meal but in the manufacture of animal feeds and fertilizers used on farms.

The fishing is mainly carried out by large corporations, which are efficiently managed and operate all over the world.

Continuous research done in fishing industry leads to innovations that improve the activities of the industry e.g. fish breeding and artificial fertilization of fish eggs at Toyo and Osaka.

Well developed sea transport, which facilitates the distribution of fish to the markets. Japan has more than 2,000 fishing ports, including Nagasaki, Kyushu, Otaru and Honshu.

Japan also has greatly advanced the techniques of aquaculture or sea tanning. In this system, artificial insemination and hatching techniques are used to breed fish and shellfish, which are then released into rivers or seas. This restocking of lakes and rivers promotes fishing on a sustainable basis.

Importance of the fishing industry to the economy of Japan

The role of fishing industry in Japan is summarized in the following:

· Source of foreign exchange through fish exports.

· Generation of employment opportunities to fishermen and fishing related activities.

· Stimulated industrial development e.g. fish processing industries and ship building.

· Stimulated the growth of ports and towns e.g. Yokohama, Niigata, Kyushu, Nagoya and Osaka.

· Facilitated the growth of the agricultural sector through the provision of animal feeds and fish manure.

· Diversification of the economy.

· Source of government revenue through taxes imposed on the many fishing companies.

· Fish is rich in protein and this has helped to improve the diet of many Japanese.

· Fishing acts as a tourist attraction thus earning the country foreign exchange.

· Fish is used as an input in the production of medicine, lubricants and cosmetics.

· Fishing has encouraged the development of infrastructure such as roads, railways and water, transport routes.

· It has stimulated research in fishing and fishing related activities.

· Through fish exports, international trade and relationship has been promoted between Japan and other countries.

Short comings of fishing in Japan

Pollution of the North West Pacific Ocean waters from oil spills and dumping of waste products from fish processing industries into the sea.

Over-fishing which has led to the depletion of some species of fish e.g. whales.

Fishing has led to conflicts between Japan and other nations such as China and Korea over the fishing waters.

Competition from other fishing producing countries such as Canada and Norway for fish markets which has reduced the cost of fish.

The growth of urban centers is associated with congestion, high crime rates and the development of slums e.g. around Hakodate, Tokyo and Niigata.

Modern fishing methods require less labour thus contributing to unemployment.

Deforestation to provide timber used in the construction of fishing ships and boats results in environmental degradation such as global warming.

Loss of lives, fish and fishing vessels due to storms on high seas. It should be noted however that many restrictions have been imposed on Japanese fleets. To the north, vessels are not permitted to fish in some of the Soviet controlled sea of Okhotsk and to the west of Rhee-line drawn by the South Korea government. This is in fact part of a penalty to be paid for being excessively efficient. Due to the reduction of fish stocks resulting from over fishing, many countries have been forced to protect their fisheries in the inlets of conservation and their own fishing fleets.

FISHING IN CHINA

China is the world's top fishing nation and has vast resources available in her own waters. Fishing is carried out from the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea which span from sub-tropical to temperate zones with a total sea waters of 1.03 million square nautical miles, of which 431,000 square nautical miles are continental shelves (within 200 meters deep). The total fishing ground area is about 818,000 square nautical miles. Fishing is an important activity in the provinces of Guangdong, Fujian, Zhejiang and Jiaangsu,

Marine fisheries especially along the southeastern coast yield a wide variety of fish species which include flounder, cod, tuna, cuttlefish, sea crabs, prawns, and dolphins.

In addition to the marine fisheries, in the inland rivers and lakes, fishermen use all sorts of nets, traps and lines to catch fish. Major rivers include Yangtze, Yellow, Heilongjiang, Zhujiang, Songhuajiang while major lakes include Oinghaihu, Boyanghu, Loububo, Tihu and Dongtinghu. The economically important fresh water fish species include black carp, grass carp, silver carp, big head carp, common carp, salmon, bream, reeves shad, eel, catfish, trout, whitebait, mullet, mandarin fish, perch, sturgeon, and pangolin.

Aquaculture was, an important part of traditional Chinese food production. Prawns, crabs, oysters, and scallops are also raised in ponds. The principal aquaculture producing regions are those close to urban markets in the middle and lower Yangtze Valley and the zhu Jiang delta.

Factors that have led to the development of fishing in China

Physical factors

The presence of a long indented coastline covering approximately 14,500 km long from the Bo Hai gulf on the north to the Gulf of Tonkin on the south which provides an extensive area for fishing.

The coastline has numerous well-sheltered bays, which provide goods sites for the development of fishing ports and villages e.g. Shangai, Guangzhu, Hong Kong, Lianyungang and Tanggu, as well as for fish breeding.

Presence of a large or extensive continental shore rich in plankton.

Presence of many fresh water bodies in addition to the marine fisheries, which provide large quantities of fish e.g. rivers such as Yangtze, Yellow, Heilongjiang, Zhujiang, and Songhuajiang as well as lakes like Oinghaihu, Boyanghu, Loububo, Tihu and Dongtinghu.

China has a number of islands which increase the area of fishing and establishment of fishing villages and ports e.g. Taiwan, Hainan and others.

The meeting of the warm Kurosio and cold Oyashio currents help to provide ideal conditions for plankton growth, which fish feeds on and hence attract large quantities of fish.

The warm Kuro Sio current blows along the Chinese coastline helping to raise temperatures which results in ice-free conditions for fishing to take place all year round.

Much silt is brought in by rivers such Yangtze River, (Chang Jiang), Yellow River (Huang He) and Xi (Si-Kiang) into the Yellow and East China Sea providing additional food in form of plankton for fish to feed on.

According to government statistics, only 13 percent of the country's total area is arable, or suitable for cultivation. The poor agricultural resources given the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts in the north and Himalayas in the south west, arable land is limited forcing people to turn to for livelihood from fishing.

Presence of a large variety of commercial species of fish such as Hairtail, Great yellow croaker Yellow croaker, Chub mackerel, Scad, Pacific herring, Spanish mackerel, Chinese herring, Pomfrets, Japanese mackerel, Conger pike, Left-eyed flounder, Right-eyed flounder, Butterfish, Porgy, Red snapper, Golden thread, Cod, Black scraper, Sardine, Globefish, Shark and Anchovy, shell fish and others.

The cool temperate climate along the coasts of China favours the preservation of fish under natural conditions. The climate also favours fish breeding.

The northeast and southwest parts of China have half of the country's forest area and various tree species are cut and used in the construction of fishing ships and boats.

Human factors

Presence of a very large population of more than 1.3 billion people, which provides a very large market for fish.

Favourable government policies such as attraction of foreign investors from countries such as Japan and USA which has boosted fishing in the East China and Yellow Seas.

Improvement in technology through the introduction and use of efficient methods of catching, processing and marketing of fish. Trawling is dominant method of fishing and other methods include gill netting, seining and long lining.

Fish provides the cheapest source of animal protein for the poor people hence highly demanded.

Well-developed transport .routes by water, rail, air and road to enable fish to reach its destination (market) easily and quickly. The major east-west railway line, from Lianyungang to Lanzhou, connects with a rail line to Urumqi in far northwestern China and to Kazakhstan in Central Asia. From Shanghai and Tianjin are roads connecting the surrounding countryside, and stretches well into the country's interior.

The Chinese have had a long tradition of sea fearing for centuries. There is therefore skilled labour to engage in fishing and fish processing in the towns of Shangai, Hong Kong and Nanchang.

Availability, of large sums of capital to invest in fishing activities from the Chinese government, Chinese entrepreneurs, financial institutions as well as from foreign investors. The reform in the economy from communism to socialist market economy has attracted many foreign investors with capital resources.

China has been politically stable for many years. This has enabled the fishing industry to develop without any ravages of war.

Formation of fishing co-operatives where capital and skilled labour are provided by the co-operators e.g. at Tianjin.

China has gained access to new fishing grounds through agreements with foreign countries. Through the China National Fishery Corporation (CNFC), China's fishing fleets reach the West African waters, as well as North Pacific and South Pacific Oceans.

Aquaculture or fish farming in ponds and lakes is well-developed. Carp ponds yield a significant share of the total aquaculture catch. Prawns, crabs, and scallops are also raised in ponds around Shanghai, Beijing, Fuzhou, Hangzhou and Tianjin.

Establishment of fish processing industries at centers such as Tianjin, Shanghai and Fuzhou, which transform fish into fish meal, fish oil and other products hence providing a ready market for fish caught.

Research is carried out which has enabled the establishment of fish ponds which yield large quantities of fish e.g. Beijing, Fuzhou, Hangzhou and Tianjin.

South East Pacific Fishing Grounds Fishing In Peru

Peru is located in South America and fishing became an important activity in the 1950's. By the late 19608, Peru was one of the world's leading fishing nations. However, today catches have declined mainly as a result of indiscriminate fishing. Fishing is carried out from the South East Pacific fishing ground and the main species of fish caught include sardines; tuna, mackerel and anchovies. More than three-fifths of the catch is typically anchovies, used for making fish meal, a product in which Peru leads the world. Fish meal is used in animal feed and fertilizer.

Chimbote is the largest fishing port in Peru and has more than 30 fish factories, and has some of the world's finest fish-packing equipment. Fishing is also carried out from inland waters such as Lake Titicaca, Manu River, Napo River, Tigre River, and Pastaza River.

Sketch Map Showing the Peruvian Fishing Grounds and Major Ports.

Factors that favoured the development of the Peruvian fishing industry Physical factors

The up welling cold waters of the Humboldt Current create good conditions for plankton growth which attracts fish. The coastal upwelling in this region is the result of deep oceanic currents colliding with sharp coastal shelves forcing nutrient rich cool water to the surface. The phytoplankton, which thrives there, is fed upon by a variety of creatures including the Anchovy.

Presence of a long coastline of over 3,000 Km long stretching from Tacna in the south to Tumbes in the north. This forms the basis of commercial deep-sea fishing off Peru's coastal belt.

The indented coastline with many sheltered bays. provides ideal sites for the construction of ports and fishing villages.

Presence, of inland water, bodies which are sources of fish e.g. Lake Titicaca, and Rivers Amazon and Ucayali from which fish species such as trout and bass are caught.

The large presence of many coastal birds whose droppings collect as guano; rich in nitrogen, potassium and phosphates. It thus acts as fertilizers to plankton growth which fish feeds on Guano is the droppings of primarily two species-of birds the guanay and the piquero, which feed on the abundant anchovy.

The presence of many offshore islands such as Chincha and Lobos group of Islands increases the area of fishing villages and. ports. The offshore islands are also important for the collection of guano.

Peruvian waters are abound with marketable fish namely bonito, mackerel, drum, sea bass, tuna, swordfish, anchoveta, herring, shad, skipjack, yellow fin, pompano, and shark. More than 50 species are caught commercially. The anchovies are particularly found in enormous numbers.

The general limited natural resources on land pushed the, population to fishing e.g. the coastal plain is an arid, elongated stretch of land extending the entire length of the country and varying in width from about 65 to 160 km. It is a northern extension of the Atacama Desert of Chile with very low population. The interior has rugged Andes Mountains-running northwest to southeast of the country.

The cool coastal climate offers good conditions for fish preservation. The coastal climate is moderated by winds blowing from the cool Peruvian or Humboldt Current.

Rivers which flow to the sea carry important nutrients which are deposited into the sea e.g.

Rivers Rimae. These nutrients are ideal for the growth of plankton which fish feeds on.

Presence of forest resources which provide timber for use in the making of fishing boats as well as providing firewood for fish smocking e.g. the tropical rain forests west of the country.

Human factors

Advanced technology in fishing, which enabled large qualities of fish to be caught and exported in the most hygienic conditions. Modern fishing methods such as trawling, gill netting and long lining are commonly used.

Research carried out by government to improve the productivity of the fisheries e.g. artificial fertilization of the fish eggs to restock the over fished waters Pacific Ocean.

With a population of over 30 million people, there is a ready market for the fish caught especially in the urban centers of Lima, Callao, Chinta Alta and Pisco. Fish is a staple of the Peruvian diet. In addition, Peru's fish and fish products particularly the fishmeal and fish oil is exported to countries such as U.S.A., China and the European Union countries.

The development of industries which process the fish into fish meal and fish oil.

Presence of well-developed transport which facilitates the distribution of fish caught to the market. The most notable Wand waterway is the Amazon River, which is navigable by ship from the Atlantic Ocean to Iquitos in Peru. Lake Titicaca also serves as a waterway. Leading Peruvian seaports include Callao, Salaverry, Pacasmayo, Paita, and San Juan.

The many uses of fish e.g. food, manufacture of fertilizers, fish oil and others.

Presence of a large supply of skilled and semi-skilled labour to work in the fishing industry.

Peru's population is basically conformed by a group of workers that have experience in fishing, naval and canning.

Extension of Peru's territorial waters by the government for a distance of 370 km their coastline thus increasing the area from which fish is derived from.

Availability of sufficient capital derived from petroleum, mining and tourism sectors as well as foreign investors to inject in the development of fishing.

The relative political stability which has enabled the industry to develop as well as attracting foreign investors in fishing.

Favourable government policies such as attraction of foreign investors, engaging in research as well as building fish lauding ports such as Chimbote.

Summary of the role of fishing to the economy of Peru

Positive

1. Generation of employment opportunities.

2. Raised people's standards of living.

3. Growth of industries e.g. fish processing and canning, ship building etc.

Source of foreign exchange through fish exports. Exports of fish products in 2000 amounted to $1.13 billion. The Peruvian fishing industry, primarily based on the export of fish meal, used in poultry feed, is among the largest in the world. Anchovies also yield fish oil, which is another exportable commodity.

Source of government revenue through taxing fishing companies. Fishing has promoted trade and co-operation with other countries.

There are over 40 fishing ports on the Peruvian coast, Paita Mollendo, Puno and Callao being some of the most important centers. Source of animal protein to the population.

Development of infrastructure particularly roads and water transport. Fishing acts as a tourist attraction.

Fish is used in the production of animal feeds and fertilizers, hence promoting agriculture.

Source of medicine and cosmetics.

Short comings

· Indiscriminate, fishing.

· Over fishing which has led to depletion of fish stocks

· Most of the fish is exported leaving little for the Peru people.

· Pollution of water making it unsafe for other uses.

· Territorial conflicts with neighboring countries like Chile and Ecuador over territorial waters.

· Deforestation resulting in environmental degradation.

· Growth of urban centers and associated problems.

· Increased unemployment due-to use of modern fishing equipment which requires less labour.

Problems faced by the fishing industry in Peru

Winds from across the equator bring an eddy of warm Water southwards along the coast of northern Peru. The warm water spreads over the cool waters of the Peruvian or Humboldt Current. This invasion of warm water is known as ElNino. The warm water covers the cool waters all the way to northern Chile. When this happens, the fish migrate or die hence a drastic reduction in the quantity of fish caught. EI Nino; this warm ocean current displaces the normally cool waters deep in the Pacific, thereby killing the microorganisms upon which other marine life depends. The recurrence of El Nino causes the disappearance of anchovies and a sharp fall in the catch of other species.

Over-fishing which has led to the decline in the quantity of fish caught. Over-fishing partly accounts for the disappearance of the anchovy's shoals of fish.

Invasion of Peruvian waters by the fishing fleets of other nations such as Japan and Chile. This has forced Peru to extend its sovereignty over the sea for a distance of 370 km from the coastline instead of the traditional 22 km.

Peru's fish products face competition from well-developed fishing industries of countries such as Norway and Japan.

Peru has a long coastline of more than 2000 km long. However, she has a limited continental shelf. That is the part of the sea floor, which is less than 200 meters deep. Most important fishing grounds are over the continental shelf.

Being a developing country, Peru lacks adequate capital to develop the industry e.g. improving port facilities, research in better methods of fishing and fishing related activities.

Low levels of technology evidence by the use of poor fishing gears especially in the inland waters such as Lake Titicaca.

Fish being a perishable commodity needs efficient transport to the market and processing centers. Peru however has poorly developed transport facilities in some regions.

Peru's coastlands are arid hence poorly settled. There is therefore shortage of labour to work in the industry. Most of the labour is also unskilled which hinders the development of the industry.

Accidents occur during fishing e.g, the capsizing of fishing vessels leads to loss of lives of the fishermen and also loss of fish.

This fishing ports suffer from thick fog especially in the months of May and November usually during the overnight hours. This reduces visibility leading to accidents.

Inadequate storage facilities which discourages catching large quantities of fish.

Limited home market for fish.

Measures being taken to develop the fishing industry in Peru

Setting up factories, which use fish as a raw material e.g., those producing animal feeds, fertilizers and fish oil.

Improved techniques of fish conservation such as freezing, packing and canning of fish.

Encouraging the local people to consume fish in order to increase the home market for fish.

Government restricts the length of the local fishing season in order to avoid over-fishing.

In order to protect their fishing industry from the fleets 01 other nations, the Peruvians have claimed sovereignty over the sea for a distance of 370 km. from the coastline.

In order to rationalize the processing side of the fishing industry, the government expropriated all the private firms producing fish meal and its derivatives and created a state corporation, Pescaperu, to control the processing of fish meal and oil.

Stocking inland waters with exotic breeds to improve on the catch.

Improvement in the transport and communication sector.

Training of man power to work in the industry.

Government policy, which supports and encourages the growth of the fishing industry,

FISHING IN CHILE

Chile is one of the fishing nations in South America found south of Peru and Bolivia. Chile occupies the 3rd place of the landing sin the world, after China and Peru. Most of the fishing is carried out from the South East Pacific Ocean with landing ports at Arica, Iquique, Antofogasta, and in many other localities. Most of the fish consists of small pelagic fish. Principal species include mackerel, anchovy, sardine; and herring. However, the bulk of the fish caught in Chile is mainly used for industrial purposes such as in the manufacture of fertilizers, fish meal and fish oil rather than food.

Factors that have favoured fishing in Chile

Physical factors

Presence of a long coastline of over 4,000 km long stretching from Cape Horn in the south to Arica in the north. This forms the basis of commercial deep-sea fishing off Peru's coastal belt.

The coastline is indented with numerous fiords consisting of narrow steep sided inlets and bays offering good sites for the development of fishing ports e.g. Gulf of Corcovado and Antofagasta.

Chile has very many islands that are used as sites for off-shore fishing villages and ports e.g. Chonos Arohipelago, Wellington, Juan Fernandez, Easter, and Sala y Gomez, Islands all of which lie in the South Pacific.

The presence of many birds, whose droppings, guano, help in the fertilization of the ocean waters thus promoting the growth of plankton which fish feeds on. This attracts large quantities of fish in the region.

Large areas of Chile are covered by the Atacama Desert with very hot temperatures and low rainfall. The Andes Mountains in the east of the country are rugged which hinders settlement. These factors have driven people to look for a livelihood from the sea

Cool temperatures brought about by the moderating influence of the cold Peruvian or Humboldt Current help in the preservation of fish under natural conditions.

Presence of various fish species of commercial value such as mackerel, anchovy, sardine, and herring which are exported as well as being processed into fish meal and fish oil.

The dense rain forests south of Valdivia are a source of timber used in the ship building and boat making industry which are vital for the fishing industry.

Rivers which flow to the sea such as Valdivia, Mapocho, and Estero Marga-Marga Rivers carry nutrients to the ocean which stimulate plankton growth hence the attraction of fish.

Human factors

Availability of a large market for fish caught locally in large cities such as Santiago and Vifia del Mar, and also abroad especially, in APEC and the European Union. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is an organization of twenty nations and one administrative region dedicated to promoting regional economic integration and global free trade among countries bordering the Pacific Ocean.

Chile is dominated by the Catholic religion which ensures a ready market for fish especially during fasting time.

Availability of sufficient capital derived from the mining of copper and other minerals; wealthy Chileans, as well as foreign investors from Japan and USA for the development of the fishing industry.

Availability of modern technology used in .catching fish e.g. use of trawling and drifting methods in the deep-sea which result in large quantities of fish to be caught.

Well developed transport system especially by water, rail, land and air for the transportation of fish to the market. A network of railroad lines extends from Iquique in the north to Puerto Montt in the south. This main north-south system is connected by spur lines to important coastal towns and by trans-Andean lines to points in Argentina and Bolivia. Because of the difficult terrain, many coastal cities rely on water transportation.

Availability of a skilled and semi-skilled labour used in the catching of fish, its processing, transportation and marketing.

Well developed storage facilities with refrigerators which allow large quantities of fish to be caught and preserved before sale at Arica and Iquique.

Research carried out at Santiago, Puerto Montt and Concepcion by government to improve the productivity of the fisheries e.g. artificial fertilization of the fish eggs to restock the over fished waters Pacific Ocean.

Fish farming is practiced and fish species such as the Chilean jack mackerel, anchoveta (Peruvian anchovy) and Chilean sprat are bred.

Corporation with other countries and international institutions e.g. Chile participates in meetings of the FAO fishing committee, the permanent Commission of the South Pacific, the Commission for the Conservation of the Antarctic Marine Living Resources and in the Commission of the Continental Fisheries for Latin America. These have helped in promoting fishing on a sustainable basis.

Several fish processing plants have been established and these pack much of the fish catch for distribution e.g. in Iquique port in northern Chile, Valparaiso, and Santiago.

The relative political stability which has enable the fishing industry to slowly develop over a long period of time.

Favourable government policies such as attraction of foreign investors, establishment of fish processing industries and joining regional and international bodies to protect and promote the fisheries.

FISHING IN AFRICA

Fishing in Africa is less developed as compared to Europe and North America. The major fishing nations in1ude South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Morocco, Ghana, Mauritania and Tanzania. Fishing in Africa is done from two main sources.

Inland fisheries i.e. lakes, rivers, swamps and ponds e.g Lakes Victoria, Nasser and Volta.

Marine fisheries i.e. oceans and seas e.g. Atlantic and Indian Oceans.

Africa fisheries are largely underdeveloped because of the reasons discussed below:-

African coasts are more or less straight and therefore lack indentations, which create, sheltered waters used as breeding grounds for fish and which help in the development of ports and fishing villages e.g. the Red Sea and Indian Ocean coastlines.

Most of Africa's coastlines have quite small, continental shelves rarely extending for a number of kilometers from the coast. This condition does not favour the growth of plankton, which fish feed on e.g. along the southern eastern African Coast.

The eastern coastline of Africa in Mozambique and Tanzania is washed by a warm Mozambique current which does not favour the growth of plankton. Therefore both the fish stocks and species are few.

Large areas of Africa are located within the tropics where temperatures are hot throughout the year e.g. Cameroon, Nigeria, DR Congo, and Gabon. The hot moist climate does not only discourage the growth of plankton but also results into rapid fish deterioration.

The presence of coral reefs particularly along the East African coast in Kenya and Tanzania interferes with movement of fishing vessels and with nets that are used in fishing.

Most areas in Africa receive a reasonable amount of rainfall, which can sustain agriculture.

Many people therefore look at agriculture as the main source of livelihood e.g. in Nigeria, and Cameroon. It is only in areas such as Angola, Namibia and Morocco that poor agricultural resources have driven people to look for a livelihood from the seas.

The African continent has few off-shore islands, which have been used to increasing the area of fishing villages.

Presence of waterfalls and rapids along rivers e.g. Victoria Falls on the Zambezi, Thuleka Falls in KwaZulu Natal, and Tisisati Falls in Ethiopia which limit navigation and fishing.

Human factors

Lack of adequate capital is a common phenomenon in almost all the Africa countries such as Liberia, Ivory Coast and Gabon. This prevents the use of modern large scale commercial fishing vessels which results into low catch. Fishing is done using simple methods such as basket trapping hand lines, gill nets and others.

Low levels of technology in fishing results in low fish yields. This is because the methods used such as basket trapping on River Congo, beach seining in Ghana and fish trapping in Dahomey are poor and inefficient. Most African marine fishermen operate from small canoes and their activities are limited to within a few miles of the shore.

Unlike in Europe and North America, Africa's population is still small hence the small demand for fish. The situation is made worse because of traditional customs and practices, which prevent growth in the consumption of fish. Some African societies like the Fulani of West Africa take eating fish as a taboo, which limits its demand.

Like many other sectors, the water transport in Africa is largely underdeveloped. Poor water transport hinders the distribution of fish especially from the islands such as Madagascar, Comoros, Pemba and Zanzibar.

Although a lot of fish in Africa is consumed while still fresh, a large part is also preserved by simple methods as smoking, salting and sun-drying e.g. in Nigeria and Ghana. These methods are poor and fish does not last long. Modern preservation facilities such as refrigeration are limited due to insufficient capital.

Many African countries have experienced little political stability. Wars have been common phenomena in countries like Mozambique, Angola, Namibia, Uganda and others. This prevents long term planning and capital accumulation necessary for the development of the fishing industry

Some of the most important fishing grounds in Africa such as along Morocco, Angola and Namibia boarder coast lands with very low population densities. The low population not only limits the demand for fish but also limits the labour supply to the fishing industry.

Many African countries have weak policies to control the fisheries. Over fishing and indiscriminate fishing are therefore common in the shallow shore waters and these deplete fish stocks.

Limited skilled labour e.g. in countries such as Liberia and Ghana.

Limited research to develop the fishing industry.

Competition for market and fishing grounds with other developed countries such as Japan, Norway and Sweden.

FISHING IN MOROCCO

The fishing industry in Morocco is a leading foreign exchange earner, accounting for 56% of agricultural and 16% of total exports. For a long time the industry has been an economic pillar for the country. The Kingdom is considered the largest fish market in Africa, with an estimated total catch of 1,084,638 MT in 2001.

The Morocco fishing ground is one of the important fishing grounds on the African continent. It is located in the North Atlantic fisheries in the western coast of West Africa. In this ground, there are over 15 fishing centers which extend from the Mediterranean Sea including the fishing ports of Wadir, Ali Hoeima, Madiq and Martial downward across the Moroccan coast.

Another fishing zone is located on the northern coast of Morocco along the Atlantic Ocean and the major fishing ports here include Casablanca,Tangier, Laranhe, Rabat, El Jadid and Kenitra.

Sketch Map Showing the Moroccan Fishing Grounds and Ports

The third zone is located on the southern coast of Morocco along the Atlantic sea board. Here only three important fishing ports have been developed. They are Agadir, Safi and Essaquira. About 65% of the total fishermen in Morocco are employed in this region out of a total of about 8,500 fishermen. Here fishing is done on a very .large .scale using trawler vessels and other boats. The most common fish species are tuna, sardines, mackerel and anchovy.

Figure 5: Mackerel fish specie

Figure 6: Anchvoy

Factors that have favoured fishing in morocco

Physical factors

Presence of a long coastline of over 4,000 Km long along the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean which forms the basis of commercial deep-sea fishing off Peru's coastal belt.

Presence of an indented coastline with bays and inlets which provide ideal sites for the development of fishing ports and villages e.g. Dakhla, El Jadida and Casablanca.

The presence of a shallow continental shelf with abundant light from the sun and nutrients from the continent which encourages the growth of plankton which attracts large quantities of fish.

The country borders the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean in the north and east. There is therefore a large fishing ground.

The west of Morocco is washed by cool Canary Current which produces ideal conditions for the multiplication offish food, plankton.

In addition, the up-welling of the cold Canary Current brings nutrients to the surface waters which offer ideal conditions for plankton growth. They therefore attract large quantities of fish.

The cool coastal climate, favours the preservation of fish

Presence of a variety of fish species of commercial value landed at Dakhla, Agadir and El Jadida ports such as sardines, mackerel, tuna, pilchard, anchovies, shellfish.

Aridity in the interior due to existence of the Sahara desert and lack of enough resources to support the population has driven people to the sea.

Human factors

Use of modern methods of fishing e.g. there are over 2000 trawlers, motorized sail vessels which are used to catch fish.

The Moroccans are traditionally sea fearing people and most settlements are along the coast. This ensures the provision of skilled and semi-skilled labour used in fishing activities.

Availability of a large market for the fish caught both at home with a population of over 30 million people and in the neighbouring countries of Mali, Mauritania and others.

Establishment of fish processing industries which provide ready market for the fish landed e.g. at Casablanca, Rabat, and El Jadida. Here, fishing is done on a very large scale using trawler vessels and other boats. The most common fish species are tuna, sardines, mackerel and anchovy.

Factors that have favoured fishing in morocco

Physical factors

Presence of a long coastline of over 4,000 Km long along the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean which forms the basis of commercial deep-sea fishing off Peru's coastal belt.

Presence of an indented coastline with bays and inlets which provide ideal sites for the development of fishing ports and villages e.g. Dakhla, El Jadida and Casablanca.

The presence of a shallow continental shelf with abundant light from the sun and nutrients from the continent which encourages the growth of plankton which attracts .large quantities of fish.

The country borders the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean in the north and east. There is therefore a large fishing ground.

The west of Morocco is washed by cool Canary Current which produces ideal conditions for the multiplication offish food, plankton.

In addition, the up-welling of the cold Canary Current brings nutrients to the surface waters which offer ideal conditions for plankton growth. They therefore attract large quantities of fish.

The cool coastal climate favours the preservation of fish

Presence of a variety of fish species of commercial value landed at Dakhla, Agadir and El Jadida ports such as sardines, mackerel, tuna, pilchard, anchovies, shellfish.

Aridity in the interior due to existence of the. Sahara desert and lack of enough resources to support the population has driven people to the sea.

Human factors

Use of modern methods of fishing e.g. there are over 2000 trawlers, motorized sail vessels which are used to catch fish.

The Moroccans are traditionally sea fearing people and most settlements are along the coast. This ensures the provision of skilled and semi-skilled labour used in fishing activities.

Availability of a large market for the fish caught both at home with a population of over 30 million people and in the neighbouring countries of Mali, Mauritania and others.

Establishment of fish processing industries which provide ready market for the fish landed e.g. at Casablanca, Rabat, and El Jadida.

Availability of sufficient capital. to inject in fishing activities such as purchase of modern fishing equipment from Spanish and French companies and governments.

The relative political stability has attracted foreign investors from various countries such as Spain, France and Italy.

Developed transport routes which link fish landing sites to the markets e.g. most fish is exported to foreign countries by water transport via Port Casablanca. Roads and railways link the various ports of Agadir, Kenitra, Mohammedia, Safi, and Tangier to the domestic markets.

Favourable government policies such as attraction of foreign investors as well as establishment of fish processing industries in centers such as Casablanca and Agadir.

Introduction of modern technology involving the use of Global Positioning System (GPS), protective fishing gear, and fish finders.

Intensive research is carried by Morocco Fish Research Institute in fish breeding, artificial fertilization of eggs, and preservation which has yielded good results.

International agreements which enabled the extension of Moroccan territorial waters from the normal 22 Km to 120km to prevent foreign vessels from fishing close to the rich Moroccan fishing ground.

Fishing in Namibia and Angola

Namibia and Angola are located in the southern hemisphere and fishing is mainly carried out from the marine water fishing ground of the South East Atlantic Ocean. Since fishing is carried out from the marine waters, the main species of fish caught include haddock, sardines, mackerel, pilchard and tuna. Inland freshwater fisheries are important in less arid areas such as the Caprivi and Okavango regions in the north-east Namibia.

Factors which have favoured fishing in Namibia and Angola Physical factors

Presence of long coastlines bordering the Atlantic Ocean which form the basis of the fishing industry.

Presence of an indented coastline with sheltered bays such as Walvis Bay which provide sites for fish breeding as well as the development of fishing ports and villages.

Namibia and Angola have one of the most productive fishing grounds in the world, due primarily to the presence of the Benguela current. Up-welling caused by the current brings nutrient rich waters up from the depths that stimulate the growth of microscopic marine organisms. These in turn support rich populations of fish, which form the basis of the marine fisheries sector.

Fairly large continental shelf with large quantities of plankton and fish. This is part of the sea floor where the sea is less than 200 meters deep. Beyond the continental shelf the sea bed drops quite steeply to the cold dark waters with little food for fish.

Presence of many types of fish species e.g. Rock lobsters, Horse mackerel, Rake, Monkfish, Anchovy, Maasbanker, Pilchard, Tunas, sardines and others.

The coastline of both these countries is washed by the cool waters of the equator wards flowing Benguela current, which supports large quantities of plankton.

Most of Namibia experiences a desert type of climate with very low and unreliable rainfall. The soils are also infertile. This has made many people to turn to the sea for a livelihood.

Other factors

Availability of sufficient capital for investment in the fishing industry especially from foreign investors. The Namibian fisheries for example are largely controlled by South African companies.

Presence of numerous coastal settlements which provide skilled and semi-skilled labour to the industry e.g. in Angola centers include Mocanedes, Porto Alexandres, Benguela and Luanda.

Large market for fish provided by neighbouring countries such as South Africa and the Democratic Republic of Congo and beyond to Europe.

Favourable government policies of promoting the fishing industry to assisting the fishermen, controlling the catch and undertaking research. The National Marine Information and Research Centre located at Swakopmund, undertakes applied fisheries and environmental research, physical, biological and chemical oceanography, stock surveys and stock assessment research while the Hardap Freshwater Research Institute located at Hardap near Mariental, focuses on freshwater fish and invertebrate research, migrations of freshwater fishes using radio tagging methods, and the development of freshwater aquaculture techniques and assessment of candidate species,

Relatively stable political environment especially in the case of Namibia which has enabled the industry to develop.

Presence of fish processing industries, which cane the fish as well as processing it into fish meal and fish oil at Walvis Bay and Lobito.

Technical assistance in fishing is provided by foreigners e.g. the German Agency for Technical Co-operation in Namibia.

Modern and efficient methods are used for catching fish such as trawling trolling and purse seining.

Efficient transport and storage facilities e.g. refrigerated trucks, which enable fish to reach far markets while still fresh. Major ports in Namibia include Walvis Bay and Luderitz from which fish is distributed to other countries by water and inland by roads and railways.

Fish farming in the areas of Namibia's aquaculture sector is in its infancy, but studies show that is has considerable development potential. Commercial marine aquaculture is based on oysters, mussels and seaweed production in the Luderitz area. Oysters are also grown in salt ponds and in the sea around Walvis Bay and Swakopmund.

Control in Namibia Until 1998 the Ministry consisted of two Directorates: the Directorate of Resource Management, responsible for scientific research and advice; and the Directorate of Operations, responsible for monitoring, control and surveillance.

Training of labour in the fishing industry. Main courses run within the country include; the Fisheries Inspectors and Observers Course, the Commercial Sampling Programme for Fisheries Observers, the. Cadet Programme for patrol boat officers and the Scientific Technical Assistance course. These courses are undertaken at the Namibian Maritime and Fisheries Institute (NAMFI) at Walvis Bay and the Polytechnic of Namibia,

Summary of the problems facing the fishing industry in Namibia and Angola

· Poor fishing methods e.g. use of canoes and simple methods which catch low quantities of fish.

· Poorly developed transport routes to market the fish.

· Limited capital to develop the fishing industry.

· Poor storage facilities.

· Narrow continental shelf.

· Competition from well developed fishing regions such as Norway.

· Pollution caused by the dumping of industrial wastes in the water, which destroy fish.

· Presence of foreign investors who dictate terms.

· Depletion of fish species due to indiscriminate fishing.

· Limited market both at home and abroad.

· Conflict over territorial waters.

· Accidents, which result into loss of lives of fishermen hence discouraging other people from joining the industry.

Measures being taken to promote the fishing industry,

· Regulation on dumping of industrial wastes into the water.

· Soliciting funds from the rich nations of the world.

· Training of manpower to work in the industry.

· Research in methods of improving the industry:

· Improved techniques offish preservation e.g. freezing.

· Introduction of better fishing methods such as use of trawlers and purse seine nets

· Campaigning for political stability.

· Signing of international fishing agreements to reduce conflicts of territorial waters.

· Government support of the industry.

· Regular patrols to control the use of out-lawed fishing methods.

Likely examination questions

1. Account for the development of the fishing industry in either Japan or Western Europe.

2. Assess the importance of the North Sea as a major fishing ground in the world.

3. To what extent do geographical factors favour the development of fishing in Africa's inland water bodies and the south Atlantic?

4. “The fishing industry is more developed in the temperate countries than in the tropical countries” Justify the view expressed above.

5. Assess the importance of the North Sea as a major fishing ground in the world.

6. (a) Discuss the factors that have favoured fishing activities in the Peruvian fisheries.

(b) What problems are-encountered in the fishing industry mentioned above and what is being done to solve them,

7. Account for the development of the fishing industry either Japan or Norway.

8. Discuss the significance of fishing in the economy of Norway.

9. (a) On the world map provided mark and name the major fishing grounds.

(b) Account for the development of fishing activities in anyone region shown above.

10. (a) For either Norway or Japan, draw a sketch map to show the major (i) Fishing grounds. (ii) Polis.

(b) To what extent have physical factors been responsible for the development of the fishing industry in the country chosen in (a) above

11. To what extent do geographical factors favour the development of fishing in Africa's inland water bodies and the South Atlantic?

12. For either Peru or China

(a) Account for the development of fishing industry.

(b) Outline the contribution of the fishing industry to the economy of the country.

13. Examine the contribution of the fishing industry to the development of either Japan or Peru.

14. Assess the contribution of the fishing industry to the development of either Angola or Norway.