To a small extent, it was ethnic or sub- nationalistic as evidenced below.

The name Mau Mau is from a Kikuyu vocabulary meaning "Go, go"

It broke out in the Central parts of Kenya which were largely occupied by the Kikuyu and the majority of the Mau Mau fighters were indeed Kikuyu people.

The hymns sang during the course of the Mau Mau rebellion were in Kikuyu language. Few of them were in Swahili. This had the impact of cutting off other ethnic groups from understanding the nationalistic message contained in them.

The Kikuyu had a secret plan of taking over political power from the whites and ruling Kenya after the white man's departure.

When the rebellion broke out, the Kikuyu were retrenched from the civil service. The Kikuyu took religious oaths while recruiting their members in the name of Gikuyu and Mumbi- the founders of the Kikuyu tribe.

Female circumcision which was one of the major grievances that led to the Mau Mau was mainly practised by the Kikuyu.

The Fourty group which was the heart of the Mau Mau was comprised of Kikuyu radicals.

Most of the dissidents arrested were Kikuyu.

Kikuyu terrorist activities were not only directed against whites but also some Africans of other tribes e.g the assassination of Tom Mbotela and Ambrose Ofafa.

Kikuyu hymns emphasized that they were fighting for Kikuyu land given to them long ago by Gikuyu and Mumbi.

However, to a large extent, it was a nationalist movement as evidenced below

In their book "The Myth of the Mau Mau", Rosberg and Nottingham correctly observed that it was a nationalistic rebellion arising out of unpopular colonial policies.

B.A. Ogot, a celebrated African historian - and a professor at Nairobi University pointed out that the Mau Mau aimed at ending colonial rule and bringing about political freedom in Kenya. Hence a nationalist revolt.

The Mau Mau made an effort to recruit members of other tribes into the movement e.g Dedan Kimathi sent his ambassadors to make recruitments in Nyanza, Ukambani and coastal areas. Few recruits however were made.

Not all top leaders of the Mau Mau were Kikuyu e.g Paul Ngei was an Akamba and in 1953, was arrested and tried along with other Kikuyu nationalists at Kapenguria and sentenced to 7 years' imprisonment.

The Kikuyu fought so as to get fair representation on the legislative and executive councils. This was a desire for all Kenyans. Hence it was nationalistic in nature.

The Mau Mau fought against land alienation and aimed at returning land into the hands of Africans. This had not only affected the Kikuyu but also other tribes like the Masai and Nandi. The issue of land was a national but not a tribal affair.

They demanded an end to the Kipande system which was a desire by many other Kenyans.

They wanted an improvement in the conditions of Africans in reserves and this can't be dismissed as a tribal affair.

They demanded a share in the growth of profitable cash crops and in retail trade which had been monopolized by white settlers and Asians respectively. This was not an ethnic demand

The Mau Mau helped to alert the British that the Kenyans wanted majority rule. They therefore started preparing Kenyans for self-government. This didn't only benefit the Kikuyu but all the Kenyans. Hence a nationalist movement,

Benefits of the Mau Mau didn't go to the Kikuyu alone but also to other tribes e.g racial discrimination was reduced and later dropped, Africans were appointed into the civil service etc. Hence a nationalistic movement.

African membership to the Legco was expanded to 8 in 1957 and to 14 by Alan Lennox Boyd in 1958. Africans were also appointed to the executive. Incidentally the first African to be appointed to the executive as Minister for Community development was not a Kikuyu but a Luo from Nyanza by names of B.A. Ohanga. Hence a nationalist revolt.

Eventually the British granted independence to Kenya and this didn't benefit only the Kikuyu fighters. So the Mau Mau can be credited for having laid a foundation for Kenya's but not Kikuyu independence.

When political parties were released as a result of pressure from the Mau Mau, other tribes also benefited by forming regional political parties,

The fact that the rebellion took place in central parts of Kenya around Nairobi doesn't qualify the rebellion to be a tribal affair.

So, the out break of the rebellion among the Kikuyu is little wonder and doesn't reduce it to a simple tribal affair.

" The land issue was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the Mau Mau uprising of 1952-55". Discuss

Approach: Identify Mau Mau. Show the role of the land factor vis-a-vis other factors in the outbreak of the uprising. Standpoint required.

Mau Mau was a movement that was started and led by the Kikuyu, but Joined by other tribes, against British imperialism. Notable leaders of this uprising included Waruhiu Itote [General China], Dedan Kimathi, etc.

Role of land

Massive land alienation by white settlers was at the centre of the crisis.

The "Kipande" system also deserves mention. This was instituted in 1919 as a means of regulating the flow of African labour to the white highlands.

Forced labour was one of the grievances that translated into the revolt. There was frequent use of forced labour in the reserves for the construction of roads, working on European farms and other communal tasks.

Settlers even called on the government to raise taxes demanded from Africans in order to force them to work. This did not go unresented by the Kenyans.

Rural-urban migration by aggrieved peasants also led to the outbreak of the uprising. Migrant labour provided a major barrier to peasant agriculture.

The British policy of enforcing improved agricultural performance on farmers angered the Kenyans.

The denial of Africans opportunity to grow cash crops on own land is what culminated into Mau Mau. Permission was to be granted (under the Agricultural Department's Policy) to only those who co-operated in building broadbased terraces to grow high value cash crops eg coffee, tea etc.

Famine arose from agricultural decline due to landlessness and the resultant rural urban drift.

Unemployment / poverty provided yet another cause. Kenyan land, the major resource-base for agriculture had been taken. The unemployed became idlers in towns.

The impatience of Kenyans (especially in the Central Province) with the constitutionalist and gradual steps being taken to redress the land issue also laid ground for recourse to violence.

To exemplify this fact, KAU's representatives, Mbiyu Koinange and Achieng Oneko presented a memorandum on the issue but the British Colonial Authority rejected it

Other factors

- The uprising broke out due to power struggle.

- The role of ex-servicemen also deserves mention

- Discrimination at political and economic levels was another cause.

- KAU also urged for the abolition of racial discrimination by law. Whether in reserves or towns, the elite could not escape the knowledge of racial stratification of society.

- The influence of the Egyptian revolution contributed. (Refer to the role of Egyptian revolution)

- The influence West African Nationalism was equally important.

- Socially, the favourable vegetation and landscape also led to the outbreak of Mau Mau.

- Kikuyu religious influence inspired the Kenyans to fight.

- In January 1952 a committee known as the Central Committee was formed under the chairmanship of Eliud Mutonyi and Isaac Gathanju as the secretary with the aim of organising oathing on a large scale so as to give Kenyans courage and cement unity.

- Cultural imperialism was another cause of the uprising.

Assess the response of the British to the Mau Mau rebellion,

Identification of Mau Mau. Give and explain positive and negative response. Standpoint

Positively, Africans were allowed to participate in political affairs through elections of representatives to the Legislative Council and the appointment of Africans to ministerial posts.

The ban on political parties was lifted. This ban lasted from 1953 till June 1955 when government announced that African parties might

In October 1959, the ending of state of emergency was announced by a new colonial secretary Macleod [it ended in I960].

A series of reform documents were produced with the aim of increasing African socio-economic opportunities to create a strong bourgeoisie class.

The British embarked on implementation of agrarian reforms. Kenyan highlands were opened to Africans; by 1959, about 26000 acres were Kenyan owned.

Negatively, the arrest of Mau Mau leaders was done on a large scale.

KAU was banned. This was because it's from the party that militant radicals broke away to form Mau Mau. Its members were disenfranchised.

The ban lasted in June 1955 when the government allowed political parties to operate but only at local level. This and the forced removal of Kikuyu leaders caused

To what extent did the Mau Mau revolt of 1952 -55 contribute to Kenya's independence achievement

Preamble: Identification of Mau Mau. Give and explain the role of Mau Mau vis-avis other factors in leading to Kenya's independence. Standpoint

Mau Mau led to the political awakening of various ethnic groups. Contrary to the general belief that only members of the Kikuyu, Embu and Meru tribes actually were involved in 'Mau Mau activities, Waruhiu Itote in the book Mau Mau in Action insists that members of tribes eg Masai, Kamba, Turkana and even the Luo were in the thick of things.

The revolt led to diplomatic defeat of Britain

The violent and destructive nature of the movement instilled fear in the settlers. This gave rise to a number of white political parties with opposing demands,

Britain began carrying out political reforms eg increase in membership of Africans in administration. This was a step towards granting freedom.

· In Britain, the outbreak of Mau Mau provoked the concern of anti-colonial radicals i.e the Congress of People against Imperialism,

The arrest of Jomo Kenyatta fired Kenyan nationalism.

The ban on political parties was lifted.

Colonial constitutions were introduced (British response to Mau Mau). These constitutions increased Kenyan nationalism because of their badness

Economic reforms were carried out

Racism as practiced by the British was dropped

Religious protest movement facilitated the move towards the collapse of British imperialism.

Colonialism was self-destructive. It came with good and bad policies that backfired on the colonial administration. To illustrate this, colonial education led to the emergency of Kenya elite like Tom Mboya, J.B Ohanga, Oginga Odinga, Jomo Kenyatta, and James Gichuru etc. The latter 2 toured Kenya, spoke to multitudes and showed them the way to freedom. Further still, there was development of urban centres by colonialists like Nairobi where anti-colonial activities were based.

· The role of KAU should not go unmentioned.

· The Manchester Conference of 1945 played equally a significant role in the wake of independence achievement in Kenya.

The role of Asian nationalism was also vital.

Trade Unions facilitated independence struggle to a further step.

In addition World Wars I and II also laid ground for independence achievement in Kenya. The role of the Federal Council of American Churches was another factor.

The success of the Egyptian revolution of 1952 helped in the achievement of independence in Kenya. hana's independence achievement further set the pace for the decolonisation of Kenya. In conclusion therefore one has to note that Mau Mau never led to independence in Kenya directly; but it laid foundation for its achievement.

Qn. "A nationalist movement" To what extent is this a true description of the Mau Mau uprising of 1952-1955?

Definition of a nationalist movement. Give and explain the nationalistic signs of Mau Mau vis-a-vis ethnic signs of the movement. Standpoint required